War
Major wars and campaigns.
Category: Society
- c. 1595 BCEMursili I sacks Babylon
In 1595 BCE (1587 on another chronology) the Hittite king Mursili I sacks Aleppo and Babylon. The Kassites are left to rule Babylonia for some four centuries. Mursili is then murdered by Hantili I, and the Hittite kingdom falls into chaos.
- c. 1350 BCESuppiluliuma I makes Hatti a great power
Suppiluliuma I, whose reign is dated c. 1350-1322 BCE with variations, overruns Mitanni's heartland, takes Aleppo and other Syrian kingdoms, and installs Piyassili at Carchemish. Mitanni stays a Hittite dependency until Assyria annexes it under Shalmaneser I.
- May 1274 BCEThe Battle of Kadesh
In May 1274 BCE, on the usual chronology, Ramesses II and Muwatalli II fight near Kadesh on the Orontes. Ramesses proclaims a rout of his enemies, while Hittite records say he was forced to withdraw. Modern historians generally see a draw.
- c. 1243 BCETukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria takes Babylon
Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1243-1207 BCE, or 1233-1197 on the low chronology) wins a major victory over the Hittites at Nihriya and captures Babylon, carrying off the Kassite king Kashtiliash IV and the statue of Marduk. His sons later besiege and kill him at Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta.
- c. 1230 BCEThe Hittites briefly annex Cyprus
Under Tudhaliya IV (c. 1245-1215 BCE, with other reign dates given) the Hittites invade and temporarily annex Cyprus, then called Alashiya, with help from the navy of Ugarit. The occupation does not last.
- c. 1208 BCEMerneptah repels the Libyans and their allies
In his fifth year (c. 1208 BCE; his reign is dated c. 1213-1203) Merneptah defeats Libyans backed by Sea Peoples in a six-hour battle at Perire, in the western Delta. He claims 6,000 enemy dead and 9,000 prisoners. The Great Karnak Inscription and the Athribis Stele record it.
- c. 1207 BCESuppiluliuma II fights at sea off Cyprus
The last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II (reigned from c. 1207 or 1210 BCE), wins a naval battle off Cyprus and is credited with reconquering the island around 1200. Ammurapi of Ugarit is his contemporary.
- c. 1190 BCEAmmurapi writes of enemy ships
Ugarit's last king, Ammurapi, tells the king of Alashiya that "seven ships of the enemy" have burned his cities while his own troops and ships are away. Alashiya's governor replies by blaming people from Ugarit's own country. Help from Carchemish arrives after the sack.
- c. 1190 BCEUgarit is destroyed
Ugarit is destroyed around 1190 BCE, dated 1192-1190 by a chancellor's tablet, an eclipse and radiocarbon. Hunger preceded the assault, weapons lay in the streets, and the attackers are unidentified. A sword with Merneptah's name was found in the destruction level.
- c. 1185 BCEElam sacks Babylon; Kassite rule collapses
During the reign of Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam (c. 1185-1155 BCE) the Elamites sack Babylon. The Kassite rule of Babylonia, which had lasted some four centuries, collapses in the early twelfth century.
- c. 1178 BCERamesses III records victories over invaders by land and sea
In his eighth year (c. 1178-1175 BCE) Ramesses III records an invasion by land and sea. He claims victory at Djahy on Egypt's eastern frontier and in the Battle of the Delta, where archers and ships trap the enemy fleet at the Nile mouth. His reign is dated 1186-1155.
- 356 BCEThird Sacred War
The Amphictyonic League, dominated by Thebes, fines Phocis for farming sacred land, and in 356 BCE the Phocians seize Delphi and use its treasure to hire armies. The war draws in Philip II, who ends it in 346 on his own terms and gains Phocis's seats in the Amphictyonic council.
- c. 353 BCEBattle of the Crocus Field
Philip II defeats the Phocian general Onomarchos in Thessaly, most likely in 353 BCE, though some place it in 352. Onomarchos dies and about 6,000 Phocians fall. Philip is made archon of Thessaly.
- August 338 BCEBattle of Chaeronea
In August 338 BCE Philip II defeats Athens and Thebes in Boeotia, with his 18-year-old son Alexander commanding the left wing. Thebes's Sacred Band is wiped out. Philip becomes master of Greece.
- May 334 BCEBattle of the Granicus
In May 334 BCE Alexander beats the Persian satraps at the Granicus river in the Troad. Cleitus the Black saves his life. Greek mercenaries in Persian service are largely killed or captured.
- November 333 BCEBattle of Issus
In November 333 BCE Alexander routs Darius III near Issus, and Darius flees, leaving his mother, wife and daughters in Alexander's hands. Ancient army numbers are far inflated. The victory opens Syria and Phoenicia.
- January 332 BCESiege of Tyre
From January to July 332 BCE Alexander besieges island Tyre, building a causeway about a kilometre long that still survives. Thousands of Tyrians die and some thousands are sold into slavery. Figures vary by source.
- October 1, 331 BCEBattle of Gaugamela
On 1 October 331 BCE Alexander defeats Darius III near Gaugamela, in modern Iraqi Kurdistan, and Darius flees. Babylon surrenders. The battle breaks the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient army sizes are unreliable.
- May 326 BCEBattle of the Hydaspes
In May 326 BCE (some say July) Alexander defeats the Indian king Porus on the Jhelum river in the Punjab, then confirms him as satrap. His horse Bucephalus dies, and Alexander founds Bucephala in its honour.
- 323 BCELamian War
On news of Alexander's death, Athens and other Greek states revolt against Macedon in 323 BCE. Antipater is besieged at Lamia, but wins at Crannon in August 322. Athens gets a garrison and an oligarchy; its citizen body falls from about 21,000 to 9,000.
- 321 BCEPerdiccas is assassinated
In 321 BCE, after a failed crossing of the Nile into Ptolemy's Egypt, Perdiccas is killed by his own officers, including Seleucus. The regency passes to others and the wars of Alexander's successors begin in earnest.
- 305 BCESiege of Rhodes
In 305-304 BCE Demetrius besieges Rhodes for about a year until a Ptolemaic relief fleet arrives. The Rhodians sell his abandoned siege machines for 300 talents and use the money for the Colossus.
- 301 BCEBattle of Ipsus
In 301 BCE Seleucus, Lysimachus and Cassander's forces defeat Antigonus, who is killed. Elephants are decisive. Demetrius escapes. Antigonus's empire is divided among the victors.
- 279 BCEThe Gauls invade Greece
Celtic armies kill the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos and push into Greece. In 279 BCE they get past Thermopylae but are defeated at Delphi. Survivors settle in Thrace or cross into Asia Minor, where they found Galatia.
- June 22, 217 BCEBattle of Raphia
On 22 June 217 BCE Ptolemy IV defeats Antiochus III at Raphia. About 20,000 native Egyptians trained as phalangites are key to the victory. African and Indian elephants fight each other here. Egyptian influence in Ptolemaic rule grows.
- 200 BCEBattle of Panium
In 200 BCE Antiochus III defeats the Ptolemaic army under Scopas near Paneas, and Coele-Syria passes to the Seleucids. A peace treaty follows in 195. The Ptolemaic state then cuts back its Macedonian phalanx.
- 167 BCEThe Maccabean revolt begins
In 167 BCE, as Antiochus IV's decrees ban Jewish practices, the priest Mattathias kills a Jew sacrificing to an idol and a Seleucid officer, and the revolt begins. His son Judas Maccabeus leads it after 166.
- c. 110 BCEHyrcanus conquers Samaria and Idumea
From about 110 BCE Hyrcanus takes Samaria, Idumea and Transjordan. He destroys the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim and, reportedly, forces the Idumeans to convert, though some scholars dispute it. Herod's family later comes from Idumea.
- c. 96 BCEAlexander Jannaeus fights the Pharisees
After taking Gaza around 96 BCE, King Alexander Jannaeus faces a civil war with Pharisee opponents, who pelt him with citrons at Tabernacles. Rebels ally with the Seleucid Demetrius III. Josephus says Jannaeus later crucifies about 800 Jews, mostly Pharisees, in Jerusalem.
- 67 BCEHyrcanus II and Aristobulus II go to war
Near the end of Salome Alexandra's life, her younger son Aristobulus II seizes fortresses and declares himself king. After she dies in 67 BCE a civil war with his brother Hyrcanus II, backed by Antipater, draws in Rome. It ends in 63 with Pompey.
- 40 BCEParthians install Antigonus; Herod named king
In 40 BCE the Parthians invade Syria and back Antigonus, last Hasmonean ruler, who takes Jerusalem and mutilates Hyrcanus II so he cannot be high priest. Herod flees to Rome, where the Senate names him king of Judea (40 or 39, by source).
- 37 BCEHerod takes Jerusalem
In 37 BCE (36 by some arguments) Herod, with Roman help, takes Jerusalem after a siege and ends Hasmonean rule. Antigonus is executed, beheaded by Antony according to Josephus.
- 6Judas of Galilee resists the census
In 6 CE Judas of Galilee urges Jews not to register for Quirinius's census. Josephus calls his movement the "fourth philosophy" beside Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes and blames it for the later war with Rome. Whether it founded the Zealots is disputed.
- 66The First Jewish-Roman War
From 66 to 73 or 74 CE Judea revolts against Rome, in what the sources call the War of Destruction. Corrupt governors, economic strain and religious zeal all play a part. It ends with Jerusalem and the Temple destroyed and the end of Jewish political independence.
- 66The revolt breaks out; Gallus is defeated
In 66 CE riots in Caesarea escalate after the governor Gessius Florus, who had plundered the Temple treasury, answers with force, and rebels kill the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Syria's legate Cestius Gallus marches on the city but is defeated at Beth Horon.
- 67Vespasian conquers Galilee
Nero sends Vespasian, who conquers Galilee in 67 CE, taking Yodfat, Tarichaea and Gamla. In Jerusalem rival factions, among them Zealots, John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora, fall into civil war.
- 70Titus besieges Jerusalem
In spring 70 CE Titus surrounds Jerusalem, full of Passover pilgrims, while factions inside fight one another and burn food stores. The Romans breach the walls and the Antonia fortress, and the Upper City falls in late summer. Josephus's 1.1 million dead is thought exaggerated.
- c. 73The siege of Masada
The Roman governor Flavius Silva besieges Masada, the last rebel stronghold, held by about 960 Sicarii and their families, traditionally in 72-73 CE, though some date it 73-74. Josephus says the defenders killed one another rather than surrender; several scholars doubt this.
- 711 – 718Umayyad army defeats the Visigoths at Guadalete and conquers most of Iberia
A Muslim army under Tariq ibn Ziyad crosses from North Africa in 711 and defeats and kills the Visigothic king Roderic at Guadalete. Most of the peninsula comes under Umayyad rule by about 718, and al-Andalus begins.
- c. 722Pelayo's Asturians defeat an Umayyad force at Covadonga
A small Asturian force led by Pelayo defeats an Umayyad detachment in the Picos de Europa. Traditionally the start of the Kingdom of Asturias and of the Reconquista, though its size and date (718 or 722) are uncertain.
- 751The Abbasids defeat the Tang at Talas
In 751 Abbasid and Tang forces fight near the Talas River in Central Asia, and the Abbasids win. A later tradition that Chinese prisoners taken there introduced papermaking to Samarkand is doubted, since paper was already in use in the region.
- 1085Alfonso VI of León and Castile captures Toledo
Alfonso VI takes the taifa city of Toledo, the old Visigothic capital, in 1085. It is the first great Christian gain in central Iberia and prompts the taifa kings to ask the Almoravids of North Africa for help.
- October 23, 1086Almoravids defeat Alfonso VI of Castile at Sagrajas
Called in by the taifa kings, Yusuf ibn Tashfin's Almoravid army defeats Alfonso VI near Badajoz on 23 October 1086. The Almoravids do not follow up at once, but in 1091 they end the taifa period and rule al-Andalus.
- 1147Portugal takes Lisbon from the Almoravids with help from crusaders
King Afonso Henriques of Portugal captures Lisbon after a siege in 1147, helped by northern European crusaders on their way to the Holy Land. The conquest roughly doubles the size of the young Portuguese kingdom.
- July 16, 1212Christian kings defeat the Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa
On 16 July 1212 a coalition of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal defeats the Almohad caliph al-Nasir in the Sierra Morena. The Almohads' power in Iberia collapses, opening Andalusia to Castilian conquest.
- July 27, 1214Philip II defeats the emperor and his allies at Bouvines
Philip II Augustus routed a larger coalition led by Emperor Otto IV in Flanders. The victory sealed the loss of Anjou and Normandy by the English crown and strengthened royal authority in France.
- 1219Genghis Khan invades Khwarazmia
After the Khwarazmian governor of Otrar kills a Mongol caravan in 1218, Genghis Khan invades in 1219-1221. Bukhara, Samarkand and Gurganj fall; Shah Muhammad II flees toward the Caspian and dies there around December 1220. Traditional death tolls are held exaggerated.
- May 31, 1223The Mongols defeat the Rus' and Cumans at the Kalka
On 31 May 1223 Jebe and Subutai, after riding through the Caucasus and beating the Cumans, defeat the Rus' princes and Cumans at the Kalka River. The raid covers some 8,900 km in three years. Subutai returns with Batu in 1237 and conquers Kievan Rus'.
- 1236Ferdinand III of Castile conquers Córdoba
Ferdinand III of Castile takes Córdoba, the former capital of the Umayyad caliphate, in 1236. The conquest is followed by much of the Guadalquivir valley and by Granada's submission as a Castilian vassal.
- 1238James I of Aragon conquers Valencia
James I of Aragon takes the city of Valencia, the last taifa of the east coast, in 1238, ending Muslim rule in the Valencia region. Settlers from Aragon and Catalonia follow.
- April 1241The Mongols defeat Poles and Hungarians
In April 1241 the Mongols beat Henry II of Silesia at Legnica (9 April) and Béla IV of Hungary at Mohi on the Sajó (11 April), destroying the Hungarian royal army; Béla flees to the Adriatic coast. They withdraw in 1242. Army sizes in the sources are disputed.
- 1248Ferdinand III of Castile conquers Seville
After a siege Seville falls to Ferdinand III of Castile in 1248, taking the largest city of al-Andalus. Only the Nasrid Emirate of Granada remains under Muslim rule in the peninsula.
- 1253 – 1256Kublai Khan conquers the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan
On his brother Möngke's orders, Kublai leads a campaign from 1253 against the Dali Kingdom in southwest China. Yunnan is pacified by the end of 1256, outflanking the Song dynasty from the southwest.
- February 1258The Mongols take Baghdad
Hulegu's army besieges Baghdad from late January 1258, and Caliph al-Musta'sim surrenders on 10 February. The caliph is executed, ending Abbasid rule in Baghdad. Casualty claims of up to two million are exaggerated; whether the House of Wisdom was destroyed is not confirmed.
- 1264Ariq Böke surrenders to Kublai Khan, ending the Toluid Civil War
Blockaded and starving, Ariq Böke submits to his brother Kublai at Shangdu in 1264. Kublai becomes the undisputed Great Khan in the east, while the western khanates go their own way.
- 1273Fall of Xiangyang opens the Yangtze to the Mongols
After a siege of several years, the Song twin fortress of Xiangyang and Fancheng surrenders to Kublai Khan's army in 1273. The defeat opens the Yangtze and leaves the Southern Song open to invasion.
- November 1274Kublai Khan's first invasion of Japan reaches Hakata Bay
A Yuan and Korean fleet takes Tsushima and Iki and lands near Hakata in Kyushu in November 1274, but withdraws after a storm and strong samurai resistance. Kublai had demanded Japan's submission since 1266.
- February 1276Mongol army enters Lin'an; the Southern Song court surrenders
General Bayan enters the Song capital Lin'an (Hangzhou) in 1276 and the dowager empress and child Emperor Gong of Song submit to Kublai Khan. Loyalist resistance continues in the south.
- March 19, 1279Battle of Yamen ends the Song dynasty; Yuan rules all China
The Yuan navy under Zhang Hongfan destroys the last Song fleet at Yamen on 19 March 1279; the child emperor Zhao Bing dies. Kublai Khan now rules all China, the first time non-Han rulers hold it all.
- 1281Kublai Khan's second invasion of Japan is wrecked by a typhoon
A far larger Yuan force in two fleets attacks Kyushu in 1281. After weeks held at the coast by samurai defences, a typhoon destroys much of the fleet. The storm becomes known as kamikaze, or 'divine wind'.
- 1285Yuan army invades Đại Việt (Vietnam) for the second time
Kublai Khan's forces invade Vietnam again in 1285, after incursions from 1257, and once more in 1287. The Trần dynasty resists and ends by accepting nominal tributary status.
- 1293Yuan expedition to Java fails after Kublai Khan's last overseas campaign
In 1293 Kublai Khan sends a fleet to punish King Kertanegara of Singhasari in Java. It is drawn into local politics and withdraws, and the Majapahit kingdom emerges. Kublai dies the following year.
- May 24, 1337 – October 19, 1453The Hundred Years' War between France and England
Philip VI moved to seize English-held Gascony and Edward III responded by claiming the French throne. The war ended in 1453 with England losing all its continental lands except Calais.
- c. 1381Ma He (Zheng He) is captured in the Ming conquest of Yunnan
As a boy of about 10, Ma He is taken prisoner when Ming armies conquer Yunnan in 1381 or 1382. He is made a eunuch and placed in the household of Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan and future Yongle Emperor.
- 1402Zhu Di takes Nanjing and becomes the Yongle Emperor
After the Jingnan Campaign (1399-1402) against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Di captures the capital Nanjing in 1402 and takes the throne as the Yongle Emperor. His supporter Zheng He is made an admiral.
- 1407Zheng He's fleet defeats Chen Zuyi's fleet at Palembang
On the first voyage Zheng He defeats the Chinese-led fleet of Chen Zuyi at Palembang in Sumatra in 1407. Chen is sent to China and executed on 2 October 1407. Whether he was a pirate or a local ruler is debated.
- August 21, 1415Portugal conquers Ceuta in Morocco
King John I of Portugal and his sons, including Prince Henry, capture the Marinid port of Ceuta on 21 August 1415. It is commonly treated as the start of Portugal's overseas expansion.
- c. 1428Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco and Tlacopan form the Aztec Triple Alliance
After defeating Azcapotzalco in 1428, the three cities ally to dominate central Mexico. The article gives 1428 for the foundation, while another passage dates the treaty to 1430.
- July 17, 1429Charles VII is crowned at Reims after Joan of Arc relieves Orléans
Inspired by Joan of Arc's lifting of the siege of Orléans, Charles VII was crowned at Reims, restoring the legitimacy of his claim against the English-backed Henry VI and turning the tide of the war.
- July 4, 1456 – July 22, 1456John Hunyadi relieves Belgrade and halts Mehmed II's advance
Hungarian forces under János Hunyadi and a crusader army raised by John of Capistrano break the Ottoman siege of Belgrade. Mehmed II, wounded, retreats; the Ottoman push up the Danube is checked for decades.
- May 29, 1460Mehmed II conquers the Morea; Mistra falls
Ottoman forces take Mistra, seat of the Despotate of the Morea ruled by the Palaiologos family, ending the last Byzantine holdout in Greece. The despots had been brothers of the last emperor, Constantine XI.
- August 15, 1461Mehmed II takes Trebizond, ending the last Byzantine successor state
Emperor David Komnenos surrenders the Empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea to Mehmed II after a month's siege. Historians treat it as the end of Byzantine continuity.
- June 24, 1478Juan Rejón lands on Gran Canaria and founds Las Palmas
A Castilian force under Juan Rejón lands at La Isleta on 24 June 1478 and founds the camp that becomes Las Palmas, opening the royal conquest of Gran Canaria against its Indigenous inhabitants.
- August 11, 1480Ottoman fleet captures Otranto in southern Italy
Gedik Ahmed Pasha's Ottoman force takes Otranto in Apulia, alarming Italy and Rome. Mehmed II's death in 1481 ends the campaign and the town is retaken that year.
- c. 1482 – January 1492The Granada War: Castile and Aragon against the Emirate of Granada
Ferdinand and Isabella's war against the Nasrid Emirate of Granada begins around 1482 (some sources say 1481) and ends with Granada's surrender on 2 January 1492.
- 1483Castile completes the conquest of Gran Canaria under Pedro de Vera
After years of resistance, mostly in the island's interior, the last Gran Canaria leaders submit to Pedro de Vera in 1483. Rejón had been removed by this time. It is the first of the major islands taken by the Crown of Castile.
- September 1492 – May 1493Alonso Fernández de Lugo conquers La Palma
Fernández de Lugo lands at Tazacorte in September 1492 and completes the conquest of La Palma in 1493, founding Santa Cruz de La Palma. The campaign dates vary between sources.
- c. 1494 – July 1496Castile conquers Tenerife, the last of the Canary Islands
Alonso Fernández de Lugo invades Tenerife in 1494 against the Guanche kingdoms (menceyatos). After defeat at the first Acentejo, he wins at Aguere and the second Acentejo, and the island submits in July 1496.
- September 1494Charles VIII of France invades Italy, opening the Italian Wars
Claiming the Angevin right to Naples, Charles VIII crossed the Alps with a large army and artillery, starting the Italian Wars (1494-1559) between France, Spain, the Empire and Italian states.
- March 1495Spanish forces defeat the Taíno at the Battle of Vega Real on Hispaniola
Columbus's brother Bartholomew and Spanish troops with dogs and cavalry defeat a large Taíno force on Hispaniola in March 1495 (24 March in most sources), ending organised Taíno resistance on the island.
- 1511Diego Velázquez begins the Spanish conquest of Cuba
Governor Diego Velázquez leads Spanish forces from Hispaniola into Cuba in 1511 against the Taíno, led by the cacique Hatuey. Cuba becomes a base for later expeditions to Mexico.
- 1519 – 1533Enriquillo's Taíno revolt in the Bahoruco mountains of Hispaniola
The cacique Enriquillo rebels against Spanish colonists in 1519 and holds out in the Bahoruco mountains for years. A peace agreement is reached in 1533, after Charles V's envoy offers his people freedom to settle where they choose.
- August 31, 1519 – September 1519Tlaxcala makes peace with Cortés and allies against the Mexica
After fighting that begins on 31 August 1519, the Tlaxcalans, who had cost the Spanish about a fifth of their men and half their cavalry, make peace in September. Their armies later become essential to the conquest.
- October 1519Spanish and Tlaxcalan forces massacre the people of Cholula
In October 1519 Cortés's men and their Tlaxcalan allies kill unarmed Cholulans and sack the city on the road to Tenochtitlan. The exact day is not given in the sources used.
- May 1520Pedro de Alvarado's men attack Aztec nobles at the festival of Toxcatl
In mid-May 1520, while Cortés is away fighting Narváez, Alvarado's forces attack Aztec elites at the Toxcatl festival in Tenochtitlan. The killings provoke the uprising that drives the Spanish out.
- June 30, 1520The Spanish are driven out of Tenochtitlan on the Noche Triste
On 30 June 1520 Cortés's army retreats from the city with heavy losses, estimated at about 400 to 1,000 Spaniards and many allies. Moctezuma II had died days earlier; sources disagree on who killed him.
- May 1521 – August 13, 1521Cortés besieges Tenochtitlan, which falls on 13 August 1521
The siege begins in May 1521, with sources giving 10 or 22 May. After more than 90 days the Aztec defenders surrender on 13 August and Cuauhtémoc is captured. Estimates put Aztec dead at about 200,000.
- 1524 – 1526Cortés leads an expedition to Honduras against Cristóbal de Olid
From 1524 to 1526 Cortés marches to Honduras against Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed the territory, and takes Cuauhtémoc with him; Cuauhtémoc is executed on the way. The trip takes him away from Mexico for months.
- August 24, 1524 – 1525The German Peasants' War rises against the lords
From August 1524 peasants rise across German lands, adopting the Twelve Articles in March 1525. Luther urges the nobles to crush them, and the rebels lose at Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525. Up to 100,000 are killed.
- August 29, 1526Suleiman I destroys the Hungarian army at Mohács; Habsburgs inherit Bohemia and Hungary
King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia dies at Mohács, triggering the Habsburg inheritance contract. Ferdinand, brother of Emperor Charles V, takes Bohemia and a disputed claim to Hungary, a rival king being Zápolya.
- May 6, 1527Imperial troops sack Rome and besiege Clement VII
On 6 May 1527 the unpaid army of Charles V, with some 14,000 German Landsknechts and 6,000 Spanish soldiers, storms Rome. Clement VII surrenders on 6 June and agrees to a 400,000-ducat ransom. The sack is often called the end of the High Renaissance.
- 1529 – 1532Huáscar and Atahualpa fight a civil war for the Inca throne
From about 1529 to 1532 the sons of Huayna Capac fight over the empire. Atahualpa's generals defeat and capture Huáscar at Quipaipán in April 1532, just before the Spanish arrive.
- September 27, 1529 – October 1529Suleiman I besieges Vienna for the first time
Suleiman's army, backing John Zápolya against Ferdinand of Habsburg, besieges Vienna. Charles V is busy in Italy, but the defenders hold and the Ottomans withdraw before winter.
- November 16, 1532Pizarro ambushes Atahualpa's party at Cajamarca and captures the Inca emperor
On 16 November 1532 Pizarro's men attack Atahualpa's unarmed entourage in Cajamarca's plaza and seize him. Estimates put the Inca dead at about 2,000 to 3,000; most sources report no Spanish deaths.
- January 22, 1536Bern invades Savoy's Vaud and lifts the threat to Geneva
On 22 January 1536 Hans Franz Nägeli leads about 6,000 Bernese into Savoy's barony of Vaud, in part to protect Geneva. Bern takes Vaud and Lausanne but lets Geneva keep its independence.
- April 1536 – 1537Manco Inca rises against the Spanish and besieges Cusco
In April 1536 Manco Inca tries to retake Cusco, and the siege lasts until the following spring. He eventually withdraws and later flees to Vilcabamba.
- 1537 – 1538Diego de Almagro seizes Cusco and is defeated and executed in 1538
Diego de Almagro seizes Cusco in 1537, is defeated at the Battle of Las Salinas in 1538 and executed that year. It opens a civil war between the conquistadors.
- 1540 – 1542The Caxcan peoples rise against Spanish rule in the Mixtón War
In 1540 Caxcan towns in northern New Spain revolt against the encomienda. Pedro de Alvarado dies on 4 July 1541 after a failed assault, and Viceroy Mendoza's army takes Mixtón in early 1542, enslaving survivors.
- 1541Cortés returns to Spain and joins Charles V’s expedition against Algiers
After going back to Spain in 1541, Cortés joins Charles V's naval expedition against Algiers under Andrea Doria and nearly drowns in a storm. In 1544 he seeks money owed by the crown and is ignored.
- August 1541Ottomans occupy Buda and partition Hungary into three parts
Suleiman's troops take Buda by a ruse, annexing central Hungary as an Ottoman province. Royal Hungary stays Habsburg and Transylvania goes to Zápolya's heir; the division lasts until 1699.
- April 24, 1547Charles V defeats the Schmalkaldic League at Mühlberg
On 24 April 1547 imperial forces rout the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League and capture John Frederick of Saxony, who loses his electoral title to his cousin Maurice. The Augsburg Interim follows in 1548.
- 1548Pedro de la Gasca defeats and executes Gonzalo Pizarro
Gonzalo Pizarro, who had killed the first viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela, is defeated near Cusco in 1548 by the royal envoy Pedro de la Gasca and executed for treason.
- 1550 – 1590The Chichimeca War begins over the silver roads of northern New Spain
From late 1550 attacks on Spanish roads and caravans lead to decades of war with the Zacatecos and other Chichimeca peoples. The viceroy declares the 'Purchase for Peace' policy a success in 1590, though the war's exact end is unclear.
- 1555French corsair Jacques de Sores captures and burns Havana
In 1555 Jacques de Sores takes and burns Havana but leaves without the great wealth he hoped to find. Sources give July or August for the attack. It pushes Spain to fortify the city and to organise convoys.
- 1562 – 1598The French Wars of Religion begin between Catholics and Huguenots
Conflict between Catholic and Protestant (Huguenot) factions, entangled with noble rivalries and a weakened Valois crown, broke into open civil war in 1562 and continued intermittently until 1598.
- March 1, 1565Estácio de Sá founds Rio de Janeiro
On 1 March 1565 Estácio de Sá, nephew of the governor-general Mem de Sá, founds São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro near Sugarloaf Mountain, as a base against the French and their Indigenous allies.
- January 20, 1567The Portuguese defeat the French and their allies in Guanabara Bay
On 20 January 1567 the Portuguese win the decisive battle against the French of France Antarctique and their Indigenous allies. Estácio de Sá dies of his wounds a month later; Mem de Sá then moves the city to Morro do Castelo.
- 1568Dutch rebels win the Battle of Heiligerlee
In 1568 the rebels defeat a Spanish army at Heiligerlee in Groningen, the first Dutch victory of the Eighty Years' War. Spanish forces soon reverse it. The usual day, 23 May, is not given by the pages I checked.
- 1568Spanish fleet defeats Hawkins and Drake at San Juan de Ulúa
In 1568, at San Juan de Ulúa (Veracruz, Mexico), a Spanish fleet destroys most of John Hawkins's slave-trading expedition. Drake escapes in the Judith, and the episode fuels his later raids on Spain.
- October 7, 1571Holy League defeats the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto
A Holy League of Spain, Venice and the papacy under Don John of Austria destroys most of the Ottoman fleet off western Greece. The league then falls apart and the Ottomans rebuild.
- April 1, 1572The Sea Beggars capture Brielle and Holland and Zeeland rise
On 1 April 1572 the Sea Beggars, exiled rebels turned privateers, take the port of Brielle. Cities across Holland and Zeeland then join the revolt, and William of Orange is reinstated as stadtholder.
- May 24, 1572Drake sails from Plymouth to raid Nombre de Dios on the Spanish Main
On 24 May 1572 Drake leaves Plymouth with two ships and 73 men to attack Spain's Caribbean treasure route. He is wounded in the attack on Nombre de Dios, then spends months raiding Spanish shipping.
- June 24, 1572Spanish forces enter Vilcabamba and end the Neo-Inca State
After Viceroy Toledo declares war on 14 April 1572, Spanish forces enter Vilcabamba on 24 June and find it deserted. The last independent Inca state ends.
- August 24, 1572St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenots in Paris
During the wedding celebrations of Henry of Navarre, King Charles IX ordered the killing of Huguenot leaders, and mobs in Paris and other cities then massacred thousands of Protestants. It began the night of 23-24 August 1572.
- November 1576Mutinous Spanish troops sack Antwerp in the Spanish Fury
In November 1576 Spanish soldiers, unpaid since the governor's death, sack Antwerp. As many as 17,000 people are killed and about 1,000 buildings burned, which pushes most provinces towards the rebels.
- 1578Drake sacks Valparaíso, Chile
In 1578 the Golden Hind plunders the Spanish port of Valparaíso and takes a ship loaded with Chilean wine. Drake had earlier been wounded by Mapuche archers on Mocha Island; the sack feeds local legend.
- March 1579Drake captures the Spanish treasure ship Cacafuego off Peru
Off the coast of Peru, in early 1579, Drake takes the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, nicknamed Cacafuego. Its silver and gold make it the richest prize of his circumnavigation.
- December 19, 1582 – 1588The Cologne War begins when Elector Gebhard Truchsess turns Protestant
On 19 December 1582 the Elector of Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, announces his conversion and then marries without resigning. Pope and chapter depose him in 1583, and war lasts to 1588, with Bavaria's Ernst winning.
- August 17, 1585Antwerp surrenders to the Duke of Parma
On 17 August 1585, after a siege begun in July 1584, Antwerp surrenders to Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma. Protestants are given four years to leave, many for Amsterdam, and the city's population falls from about 100,000 to 40,000.
- September 1585 – July 22, 1586Drake leads a fleet of 21 ships against Spain's Caribbean colonies
From September 1585 to July 1586 Drake raids Spanish settlements, including Santo Domingo, Cartagena and St Augustine, in the first big English naval offensive of the war with Spain.
- January 1586Francis Drake captures and ransoms Santo Domingo
Francis Drake's English fleet takes Santo Domingo, the Spanish colonial capital on Hispaniola, in early January 1586 and extorts a ransom (given as 25,000 ducats by one source). He then sails for Cartagena.
- June 6, 1586Drake burns St Augustine in Spanish Florida
On 6 June 1586, returning from the Caribbean, Drake's fleet attacks and burns the Spanish settlement of St Augustine in Florida. He then visits Roanoke and takes the colonists home.
- April 1587Drake raids Cádiz and delays the Spanish Armada
In April 1587 Drake enters Cádiz harbour and destroys dozens of ships and stores meant for Spain's invasion fleet. He calls it 'singeing the King of Spain's beard'; the damage postpones the Armada by about a year.
- July 1588Drake serves as vice admiral as England defeats the Spanish Armada
In July 1588, as vice admiral under Lord Howard of Effingham, Drake fights the Spanish Armada in the Channel. The invasion of England fails.
- 1589Drake and Norris's 'English Armada' fails against Spain
In 1589 a large English expedition under Drake and Sir John Norris attacks Corunna and Lisbon, hoping to destroy Spanish ships and raise Portugal in revolt. It fails at heavy cost; estimates of the dead vary widely.
- 1593 – 1606The Long Turkish War between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans begins
In 1593 Emperor Rudolf II goes to war with the Ottoman Empire over Hungary. The war lasts thirteen years until the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606 and strains the Habsburgs' finances and their relations with their own Estates.
- December 12, 1602Geneva repels Savoy's surprise attack in the Escalade
In the night of 11–12 December 1602 (Old Style), troops of Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy try to take Geneva by scaling its walls. The defenders repel them, and Savoy's last attempt to take the city by force fails.
- November 11, 1606Peace of Zsitvatorok ends the Long Turkish War
Emperor Rudolf II and Sultan Ahmed I agree peace on the Zsitva River after 13 years of inconclusive war. The Ottomans keep Eger and Kanizsa, and the treaty sets the Habsburg-Ottoman frontier for half a century.
- March 25, 1609 – November 12, 1614The Jülich-Cleves succession crisis begins and draws in Europe's powers
Duke John William of Jülich-Cleves dies childless on 25 March 1609, and Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg claim his duchies. Union, League, France and Spain take sides. The Treaty of Xanten divides them on 12 November 1614.
- July 10, 1609Catholic princes form the Catholic League under Maximilian of Bavaria
On 10 July 1609 Catholic princes and prince-bishops meet at Munich and form a League under Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria. It is a defensive alliance meant to counter the Protestant Union, and it lasts as a military force in the war.
- May 14, 1610Henry IV of France is assassinated while preparing war on the Habsburgs
On 14 May 1610 François Ravaillac stabs Henry IV in Paris. Historians widely believe Henry was about to launch a campaign against the Habsburgs over Jülich. His widow Marie de' Medici, as regent, reduces the promised French force.
- 1611 – January 20, 1613Denmark and Sweden fight the Kalmar War for control of the Baltic
In 1611 Christian IV of Denmark-Norway attacks Sweden at the start of the Kalmar War. The Treaty of Knäred on 20 January 1613 forces Sweden to pay a heavy indemnity, but Sweden keeps its territory, bar Älvsborg.
- October 30, 1611Gustavus Adolphus becomes King of Sweden at sixteen
On 30 October 1611 Gustavus Adolphus becomes King of Sweden on his father Charles IX's death, aged sixteen, in the middle of the Kalmar War. He is declared of age in January 1612 and reorganises Swedish government and army.
- 1619A Bohemian army under Count Thurn reaches the walls of Vienna
In 1619 the Bohemian rebel army, led by Count Thurn, advances into Austria and reaches the walls of Vienna, threatening the new ruler Ferdinand at his own capital. The Bohemian estates also seek allies in Hungary and the Empire.
- August 1619 – September 1619Gábor Bethlen of Transylvania invades Royal Hungary and joins the revolt
In August 1619 the Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, Gábor Bethlen, invades Habsburg-ruled Royal Hungary and in September takes Košice, where Protestant supporters proclaim him leader of Hungary and protector of Protestants.
- August 1620Spain's Army of Flanders invades the Lower Palatinate
In late August 1620 Ambrogio Spinola's Spanish Army of Flanders enters the Lower Palatinate from the Netherlands and takes Kreuznach and Oppenheim. This opens the Palatinate campaign, which lasts until August 1623.
- November 8, 1620Imperial and League forces crush the Bohemian army at White Mountain
On 8 November 1620 Tilly and Bucquoy rout Christian of Anhalt's Bohemian army near Prague in about an hour. Frederick V flees, and the Bohemian Revolt collapses.
- April 27, 1622 – June 1622Tilly defeats the Protestant armies in the Palatinate at Wimpfen and Höchst
In spring 1622 Tilly's Catholic League army invades the Palatinate and beats Protestant forces at Mingolsheim (27 April), Wimpfen (early May, sources give 6 or 8) and Höchst (June).
- September 19, 1622Heidelberg falls to Tilly after an eleven-week siege
On 19 September 1622 Tilly takes Heidelberg, capital of the Electoral Palatinate, after eleven weeks. Mannheim falls soon after, and Frederick V, already in exile, flees to the United Provinces.
- August 6, 1623Tilly defeats Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn and ends the Palatine phase
On 6 August 1623 Tilly destroys Christian of Brunswick's Protestant army at Stadtlohn near the Dutch border. Frederick V signs an armistice, which ends the Bohemian-Palatine phase of the war.
- May 8, 1624 – April 30, 1625The Dutch West India Company captures Salvador and loses it a year later
A Dutch fleet takes Salvador on 8 May 1624, and the Portuguese governor surrenders. A combined Spanish and Portuguese fleet retakes the city on 30 April 1625.
- May 9, 1625Christian IV of Denmark takes command of the Lower Saxon Circle and enters the war
On 9 May 1625 Christian IV, elected military commander of the Lower Saxon Circle, takes up arms against Ferdinand II as Duke of Holstein. His intervention opens the Danish phase of the war, financed by England and the Dutch.
- July 25, 1625Wallenstein is commissioned to raise an imperial army for Ferdinand II
On 25 July 1625 Albrecht von Wallenstein, made Duke of Friedland that year, receives his commission to raise an army for Ferdinand II at his own expense. It grows to tens of thousands, and sources differ on whether 30,000 or 50,000.
- April 25, 1626Wallenstein routs Mansfeld at the Dessau Bridge over the Elbe
On 25 April 1626 Wallenstein's imperial army overpowers Ernst von Mansfeld's Protestant army as it tries to cross the Elbe at Dessau, the only land link between Magdeburg and Dresden. Mansfeld loses nearly half his army.
- August 27, 1626Tilly defeats Christian IV of Denmark at Lutter
On 27 August 1626 Tilly's Catholic League army defeats Christian IV at Lutter am Barenberge. The Danes lose all their artillery and thousands of men, and many German allies desert Christian.
- September 10, 1627 – October 28, 1628Richelieu besieges La Rochelle and crushes the Huguenots' military power
Royal forces besiege the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle from August 1627 until it surrenders on 28 October 1628, despite three failed English relief expeditions. Its population falls from about 27,000 to 5,000.
- December 26, 1627 – June 19, 1631The War of the Mantuan Succession divides France, Spain and the emperor
Duke Vincenzo II of Mantua dies on 26 December 1627 without heirs. France and Venice back Charles of Nevers, Spain and the Empire another claimant. Imperial troops sack Mantua on 18 July 1630, and Cherasco confirms Nevers on 19 June 1631.
- May 13, 1628 – August 4, 1628Stralsund resists Wallenstein with Danish and Swedish help
From 13 May to 4 August 1628 Stralsund holds out against Wallenstein. On 23 June it signs a twenty-year alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, who sends troops. It is Wallenstein's first setback and Sweden's foothold in the Empire.
- September 7, 1628 – September 8, 1628Piet Hein captures Spain's treasure fleet at Matanzas Bay
On 7–8 September 1628 the Dutch West India Company's Piet Hein captures the Spanish silver fleet in Matanzas Bay, Cuba, taking goods worth about 11.5 million guilders. The loss strains Spain's war effort in the Netherlands.
- September 26, 1629Sweden and Poland sign the Truce of Altmark, freeing Gustavus Adolphus for Germany
On 26 September 1629, with French mediation, Sweden and Poland-Lithuania agree a six-year truce. Sweden keeps Livonia and the revenue from Polish ports, which funds its entry into the Thirty Years' War in 1630.
- February 1630 – 1654The Dutch take Olinda and Recife and begin their rule in northeastern Brazil
In February 1630 the Dutch West India Company takes Olinda, and Recife by 3 March. Dutch Brazil lasts until 1654, when the Portuguese regain the northeast.
- July 6, 1630Gustavus Adolphus lands on Usedom and brings Sweden into the war
On 6 July 1630 (26 June Old Style) Gustavus Adolphus lands his army on Usedom, off Pomerania, and Sweden enters the war. Sources differ on the force, from about 4,000 to 13,000 men. He occupies Pomerania under the Treaty of Stettin.
- May 20, 1631Imperial and League troops storm and burn Magdeburg
On 20 May 1631, after a two-month siege, Tilly's and Pappenheim's troops storm Magdeburg. Fire destroys about 1,700 of 1,900 buildings and some 20,000 people die. Gustavus Adolphus does not relieve it, and "Magdeburg mercy" becomes a byword.
- September 17, 1631Gustavus Adolphus and Saxony defeat Tilly at Breitenfeld
On 17 September 1631 the Swedish-Saxon army defeats Tilly's Imperial-League army near Leipzig. The Saxons break early but the Swedes counterattack. It is the Protestants' first major victory and opens southern Germany to Sweden.
- 1632Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein after Tilly's defeats
In 1632, after Gustavus Adolphus's victories at Breitenfeld and the Lech and Tilly's death, Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein. He raises a new army within weeks and drives the Saxons from Bohemia.
- April 15, 1632Gustavus Adolphus crosses the Lech at Rain and Tilly is mortally wounded
On 15 April 1632 Gustavus Adolphus defeats the Catholic League at Rain on the Lech. Tilly's thigh is shattered and he dies two weeks later. Maximilian of Bavaria retreats, leaving Bavaria open to Swedish invasion.
- May 17, 1632Gustavus Adolphus enters Munich
On 17 May 1632 Gustavus Adolphus's army enters Munich, capital of Maximilian of Bavaria, the leader of the Catholic League. Bavaria is widely pillaged. The Swedes then advance on Nuremberg.
- September 3, 1632Wallenstein repels Gustavus Adolphus's assault at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg
On 3 September 1632 Gustavus Adolphus attacks Wallenstein's entrenched camp at the Alte Veste, near Nuremberg, and is repulsed with about 2,500 casualties. Short of supplies, he withdraws south on 19 September.
- November 16, 1632Gustavus Adolphus is killed at the Battle of Lützen
On 16 November 1632 (6 November Old Style) Gustavus Adolphus is killed leading a cavalry charge at Lützen. The Swedes hold the field against Wallenstein, who withdraws to Bohemia, but Sweden loses its king and the war goes on.
- September 5, 1634 – September 6, 1634Imperial and Spanish forces crush the Swedes at Nördlingen
On 5–6 September 1634 an Imperial-Spanish army routs the Swedish-German army of Horn and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar at Nördlingen. Some 12,000 to 14,000 are killed or captured. Swedish power in southern Germany ends, and France soon enters the war.
- May 19, 1635France declares war on Spain
On 19 May 1635 Louis XIII declares war on Spain and invades the Spanish Netherlands, openly entering the Thirty Years' War. It begins the Franco-Spanish War, which outlasts Westphalia and ends in 1659.
- August 1636Spanish army reaches Corbie, threatening Paris
In August 1636 a Spanish incursion from the Netherlands under the Cardinal-Infante takes Corbie in Picardy. Supply problems force it to retreat, and the attempt is not repeated.
- October 4, 1636Swedes defeat the Imperial-Saxon army at Wittstock
On 4 October 1636 Banér and Leslie rout Hatzfeldt's Imperial and Saxon army, which loses all its artillery. It restores Swedish prestige, but Brandenburg allies with the emperor.
- October 21, 1639Dutch fleet destroys a Spanish armada at the Downs
On 21 October 1639 Maarten Tromp attacks Oquendo's fleet, anchored in neutral English waters, with fireships. Spain loses many ships and its hope of contesting Dutch sea power in the Channel.
- 1640Corpus de Sang: Catalan revolt breaks out in Barcelona
Riots by harvesters and townsfolk against billeted Spanish troops and the crown's demands begin the Reapers' War. Sources date it to Corpus Christi in May or 7 June 1640, so only the year is given.
- December 1, 1640Portugal revolts against Spain and acclaims John IV
On 1 December 1640 nobles and wealthy townsmen revolt and acclaim John IV, Duke of Braganza, ending 60 years of Habsburg rule. Spain accepts Portugal's sovereignty only in 1668.
- January 26, 1641Franco-Catalan forces defeat Spain at Montjuïc
On 26 January 1641 Franco-Catalan forces win the Battle of Montjuïc outside Barcelona, securing the city for the rebels. Barcelona falls to Spain only in 1652.
- November 2, 1642Torstensson defeats the Imperial army at Breitenfeld
On 2 November 1642 Torstensson's Swedes defeat Archduke Leopold Wilhelm and Piccolomini, who lose all 46 guns. Sweden gains Leipzig, but Saxony still does not make peace.
- May 19, 1643Condé defeats the Spanish at Rocroi
On 19 May 1643 the 21-year-old Duke of Enghien, later the Great Condé, defeats Melo's army at Rocroi. It ends the Spanish tercios' aura of invincibility. Estimates of Spanish losses vary widely.
- May 20, 1643 – October 28, 1643Dutch fleet under Brouwer raids Chiloé and occupies Valdivia
From May to October 1643 a Dutch expedition sacks Carelmapu and Castro, then occupies the ruined city of Valdivia, hoping for gold and a base against Spanish Peru. It leaves in October.
- February 1645Spain resettles Valdivia and begins its fortress system
In February 1645 a Spanish fleet from Callao reaches Valdivia and resettles it after the Dutch occupation, beginning the Valdivian fort system.
- March 6, 1645Swedes destroy the Imperial army at Jankau
On 6 March 1645 Torstensson defeats Hatzfeldt, who is captured, at Jankau in Bohemia. Hunger and exhaustion stop the Swedes from exploiting it, and they leave Bohemia by February 1646.
- August 3, 1645Condé and Turenne win at Nördlingen, at heavy cost
On 3 August 1645 near Alerheim, Enghien and Turenne defeat the Bavarians under Mercy, who is killed. French losses are heavy and the strategic gain is small, and Bavaria gets only a breathing space.
- August 13, 1645Denmark yields territory to Sweden at Brömsebro
On 13 August 1645 Denmark–Norway cedes Gotland, Ösel, Jämtland, Härjedalen and (for 30 years) Halland. It ends the Torstenson War and confirms Sweden's dominance in the Baltic.
- 1648 – 1653The Fronde: revolts of Parlement and nobles against the crown
Civil wars during Louis XIV's minority pitted the Parlement of Paris and great nobles against the regency and Mazarin. The crown won, and the young Louis resolved to concentrate power in the monarchy.
- April 19, 1648 – February 19, 1649The Portuguese defeat the Dutch at the Battles of Guararapes
Two battles near Recife, on 19 April 1648 and 19 February 1649, turn the war in Portugal's favour. The Dutch are later besieged in Recife, which falls in 1654.
- May 17, 1648Franco-Swedish army wins at Zusmarshausen
On 17 May 1648 Wrangel and Turenne defeat the Imperial-Bavarian army, killing Melander. Montecuccoli's rearguard saves it from destruction. It is the last major battle on German soil, and Bavaria is plundered.
- August 20, 1648Condé crushes the Spanish at Lens
On 20 August 1648 Condé defeats Archduke Leopold Wilhelm's Spanish army, which loses about half its men. Often called the last major battle of the war, it adds pressure for peace, though the Fronde limits France.
- October 24, 1648Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War
On 24 October 1648 treaties are signed at Osnabrück (emperor and Sweden) and Münster (emperor and France). The war killed an estimated 4.5 to 8 million people. Historians now doubt that the texts founded modern state sovereignty.
- January 1654The Dutch surrender Recife and leave Brazil
After a siege of about two years, the Dutch capitulate at Recife in January 1654 (26 or 28 January, depending on the source). The Dutch lose their Brazilian colony.
- April 1655English Western Design force fails to take Santo Domingo, then seizes Jamaica
In April 1655 Cromwell's expedition under Penn and Venables is repulsed outside Santo Domingo, losing about a thousand men. The fleet turns to weakly held Jamaica and takes it in May.
- September 12, 1683Polish-Imperial army lifts the Ottoman siege of Vienna
A relief army led by Jan III Sobieski of Poland and Emperor Leopold I's forces routs Kara Mustafa's Ottoman army outside Vienna. It is the last great Ottoman threat to central Europe and opens the Habsburg reconquest of Hungary.
- November 20, 1695Zumbi is captured and beheaded after the fall of Palmares
In January 1694 Portuguese forces take Palmares's main settlement, Cerca do Macaco; Zumbi escapes wounded and is betrayed and beheaded on 20 November 1695. Resistance in the region continues for decades.
- 1742Juan Santos Atahualpa rises in the Peruvian jungle and expels the missionaries
In 1742 Juan Santos, who claims to be the reincarnated Inca Atahualpa, leads the Asháninka and others from the Gran Pajonal against Spain. Over a decade, the rebels force the evacuation of 23 missions. Sources give the end as 1752 or 1756.
- June 6, 1762 – August 13, 1762A British fleet and army besiege and capture Havana
The British siege of Havana lasts from 6 June to 13 August 1762 during the Seven Years' War. Their rule opens Cuba to free trade and adds about 3,200 enslaved Africans to the roughly 4,000 already on the island.
- February 10, 1763Treaty of Paris ends the Seven Years' War; France loses its North American empire
Under Louis XV, France ceded Canada and its lands east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) to Britain, losing most of its North American empire and weakening its finances.
- 1778France allies with the American revolutionaries against Britain
Louis XVI's government signed a formal alliance with the United States and entered the war, aiming to avenge 1763. The costs added heavily to the crown's debt.
- November 4, 1780 – 1783Túpac Amaru II leads the great Andean rebellion against Spanish rule
On 4 November 1780 followers of Túpac Amaru II seize the corregidor Antonio de Arriaga near Tinta, who is hanged on 10 November. The rising spreads across the southern Andes and ends in 1782-83; sources give different end dates.
- April 20, 1792France declares war on Austria, opening the Revolutionary Wars
The Legislative Assembly voted for war against Austria on the proposal of Louis XVI's ministers, starting the French Revolutionary Wars that would last until the Napoleonic era.
- September 20, 1792French army halts the Prussians at Valmy
French forces under Kellermann and Dumouriez stopped a Prussian army led by the Duke of Brunswick in Champagne, the first major French success of the Revolutionary Wars and a boost to the new regime.
- April 6, 1793Committee of Public Safety established
The National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, which became the de facto wartime government of France and directed the Reign of Terror.
- April 1796 – 1797Bonaparte's first Italian campaign against Austria and Piedmont
Commanding the French Army of Italy, Bonaparte began a campaign in Italy in April 1796 (the Montenotte campaign) during the Revolutionary Wars, the first major step in his rise.
- 1798Britain agrees with Toussaint Louverture to leave Saint-Domingue
After the Maitland-Louverture armistice of 30 March 1798 British troops evacuate their occupied zones on Saint-Domingue, ending a five-year intervention begun in 1793. Sources give August to October for the final departure.
- 1798 – 1799Bonaparte invades Egypt and Syria
A French army under Bonaparte invaded Ottoman Egypt in 1798, fighting the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July. The army was cut off from France after the British naval victory at the Nile in August.
- August 1, 1798 – August 3, 1798Nelson destroys the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile
Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson attacked the French fleet anchored at Aboukir Bay; its commander Brueys was killed and most ships lost. Bonaparte's army was left stranded in Egypt.
- June 1799 – July 1800Toussaint Louverture defeats André Rigaud in the War of the Knives
From June 1799 to July 1800 Toussaint's forces fight the mulatto general André Rigaud for control of the south of Saint-Domingue. Toussaint wins and becomes master of the whole French colony.
- February 1802Napoleon's brother-in-law Leclerc lands a French army in Saint-Domingue
In early February 1802 General Charles Leclerc arrives at Saint-Domingue with a large expeditionary force sent by Napoleon to restore French control. Toussaint retreats to the mountains and war resumes.
- March 2, 1802 – March 24, 1802French army takes Crête-à-Pierrot from Dessalines after a three-week siege
From 2 to 24 March 1802 Dessalines's troops hold the fort against Leclerc's army. The French win at heavy cost, but the resistance weakens Leclerc, who is struck by yellow fever.
- May 1802Toussaint Louverture submits to Leclerc in return for an amnesty
In early May 1802, after Dessalines and other officers defect, Toussaint recognises Leclerc's authority and retires to his estate at Ennery. Sources give 2, 6 or 7 May.
- May 18, 1803Britain declares war on France, opening the Napoleonic Wars
Britain, citing French expansion in Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands and a dispute over evacuating Malta, resumed war; Napoleon had in turn protested British occupation of Malta and Egypt.
- November 18, 1803Haitian army defeats the French at the Battle of Vertières
On 18 November 1803 Jean-Jacques Dessalines's forces defeat Rochambeau's army at Vertières near Cap-Français, the last major battle of the revolution. The French evacuate soon after.
- February 1804 – April 1804Dessalines orders the killing of the remaining French in Haiti
From February to April 1804 Dessalines has the French who stayed in Haiti killed, an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 people. He exempts some groups, including Poles and Germans. It is defended as security against a French return.
- October 21, 1805Nelson defeats the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar
Off Cape Trafalgar, a British fleet under Nelson (killed in the battle) beat the combined fleets of Villeneuve and Gravina. It ended Napoleon's chances of invading Britain and confirmed British naval supremacy.
- December 2, 1805Napoleon defeats Russia and Austria at Austerlitz
Outnumbered by about 85,000 to 72,000, Napoleon routed the Russian and Austrian armies of Alexander I and Francis II. Austria left the Third Coalition by the Treaty of Pressburg on 26 December.
- October 14, 1806Napoleon crushes the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstedt
On the same day, Napoleon beat Prince Hohenlohe at Jena and Marshal Davout, though outnumbered, defeated the main Prussian army at Auerstedt. Berlin fell to the French soon after.
- 1807 – April 17, 1814The Peninsular War in Portugal and Spain
French forces occupied Portugal in 1807 and then Spain, where Napoleon installed his brother Joseph. Spanish armies and guerrillas, with British and Portuguese forces under Wellesley, fought until the war ended on 17 April 1814.
- May 2, 1808Madrid rises against French rule on the Dos de Mayo
After Napoleon forced Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to abdicate and installed Joseph Bonaparte, an uprising in Madrid began the Spanish rebellion against French occupation.
- July 1808Spanish forces defeat a French army at Bailén
In Andalusia, Spanish forces defeated a French army in July 1808, regarded as the first open-field defeat of Napoleon's forces on a European battlefield.
- November 7, 1808Dominican rebels defeat the French at Palo Hincado, east of Santo Domingo
On 7 November 1808 Juan Sánchez Ramírez's rebels, supported by Puerto Rico and British Jamaica, beat General Ferrand's French army at Palo Hincado. The victory opens the siege of Santo Domingo and the return of Spanish rule.
- April 1809 – October 1809Austria, with Britain and Spain, renews war against Napoleon
In April 1809 Austria launched the War of the Fifth Coalition. Napoleon defeated it at Wagram and imposed a harsh peace in October 1809.
- June 24, 1812 – December 24, 1812Napoleon invades Russia with the Grande Armée
Over 450,000 men crossed the Neman on 24 June 1812. Russia withdrew deeper, preserving its army and, at Borodino and Moscow, denying a decisive result; only about 120,000 of Napoleon's force survived. The campaign ended 24 December.
- September 7, 1812Napoleon fights the Russian army at Borodino
West of Moscow, Napoleon failed to destroy Kutuzov's Russian army in what was among the bloodiest single days of the wars. The Russians then withdrew and abandoned Moscow.
- September 14, 1812Napoleon enters a burning, deserted Moscow
French troops occupied Moscow, set ablaze under governor Rostopchin. Napoleon waited about five weeks for a peace offer that never came, then began the retreat in October.
- October 16, 1813 – October 19, 1813Battle of Leipzig: the Sixth Coalition defeats Napoleon
Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish armies under Alexander I, Schwarzenberg, Blücher and Bernadotte defeated Napoleon in the largest battle of the wars. France lost control of lands east of the Rhine.
- August 3, 1814 – 1815Pumacahua and Cusco's creoles rise demanding the liberal reforms of 1812
On 3 August 1814 Mateo Pumacahua and creole leaders form a junta in Cusco, demanding the reforms of the 1812 Spanish Constitution. Royal forces retake the city and Pumacahua is executed in 1815.
- June 18, 1815Wellington and Blücher defeat Napoleon at Waterloo
An Anglo-allied army under Wellington held until the Prussians under Blücher broke the French right flank. Napoleon abdicated again on 22 June and was exiled to Saint Helena.
- September 1820San Martín's Liberating Expedition lands on the coast of Peru
In September 1820 José de San Martín's Expedición Libertadora, sailing from Chile, lands at Pisco Bay and Paracas to free Peru from Spain. Sources give 7 or 8 September for the landing.
- August 6, 1824Bolívar's cavalry defeats the royalists at Junín
On 6 August 1824 Bolívar's patriot cavalry defeats José de Canterac's royalists on the plain of Junín in a short engagement fought with swords and lances. Sources disagree on troop numbers.
- December 9, 1824Sucre wins the Battle of Ayacucho and Spanish rule in Peru collapses
On 9 December 1824 Antonio José de Sucre defeats the royalist army at Ayacucho; Viceroy José de la Serna is wounded and captured, and Canterac signs the capitulation. The viceroyalty is dissolved on 30 December.
- January 23, 1826Callao, the last Spanish stronghold in Peru, surrenders
On 23 January 1826 the Real Felipe fortress at Callao capitulates, after a siege that began after Ayacucho. It is the last major Spanish stronghold in Peru, and Spain recognises Peruvian independence only in 1879.
- March 19, 1844 – March 30, 1844Dominican forces defeat Haitian armies at Azua and Santiago
In March 1844 Pedro Santana's troops repel a Haitian column at Azua (19 March), and José María Imbert's heavily outnumbered garrison beats Jean-Louis Pierrot's army at Santiago (30 March). The victories secure the newly declared Dominican Republic.
- April 1849Santana defeats Emperor Soulouque's invading Haitian army at Las Carreras
In April 1849 Pedro Santana defeats the Haitian army led in person by Emperor Faustin Soulouque in a two-day battle near Azua, the main Dominican victory between the 1844 battles and the last Haitian invasion of 1855-1856.
- August 1851Narciso López lands an expedition in Cuba and is defeated and executed
After earlier attempts in 1848-1850 failed, Narciso López lands in Pinar del Río in August 1851 with an armed force from abroad. Spanish troops defeat it and López is executed.
- December 1855 – January 1856Dominican troops defeat Haiti’s 1855–1856 invasion at Santomé and Sabana Larga
Dominican troops defeat the Haitian southern column at Santomé (22 December 1855), killing General Antoine Pierrot, and a larger Haitian army near Dajabón at Sabana Larga (27 January 1856).
- August 16, 1863Dominican rebels cross the border from Haiti and rise against Spain
On 16 August 1863 a group led by Santiago Rodríguez raises the flag of revolt at Capotillo. The Restoration War follows, with guerrilla fighting that costs Spain thousands of men, many to disease.
- October 10, 1868 – February 10, 1878Carlos Manuel de Céspedes begins Cuba's Ten Years' War against Spain
On 10 October 1868 Carlos Manuel de Céspedes declares independence and frees his slaves. General Martínez Campos negotiates the Pact of Zanjón on 10 February 1878. Estimates of the dead vary widely.
- February 24, 1895Cuban rebels rise against Spain on 24 February 1895
Uprisings across Cuba on 24 February 1895 begin the last war of independence against Spain. The conflict ends three years later with the Spanish-American War.
- May 19, 1895José Martí is killed in battle at Dos Ríos
José Martí, the writer and organiser of the independence war, is killed on 19 May 1895, shortly after the uprising begins.
- October 21, 1896Spain's General Weyler orders the rural population into fortified areas
On 21 October 1896 Valeriano Weyler orders Cuban villagers into fortified towns, a policy that lasts until March 1898. By the account on Wikipedia it killed at least a third of the rural population.
- February 15, 1898The US battleship Maine explodes in Havana harbour
On 15 February 1898 the USS Maine blows up in Havana harbour and 268 crew die. The cause has not been clearly established; the incident feeds the road to the Spanish-American War.
- April 21, 1898 – August 13, 1898The United States blockades Cuba and goes to war with Spain
A US resolution of 20 April 1898 backs Cuban independence (the Teller Amendment). Congress declares that war has existed since the blockade of 21 April. Fighting ends with an armistice on 13 August.
- May 20, 1912 – July 18, 1912Cuban forces crush the Independent Party of Color's armed protest
From 20 May to 18 July 1912 the army puts down a revolt of the Partido Independiente de Color in Oriente; its leader Evaristo Estenoz is killed on 27 June. Estimates of Black and mixed-race dead range from about 1,000 to 6,000.