Roman Republic
Rome from its legendary founding and the traditional seven kings, through the Republic and its conquests and civil wars, to Octavian's settlement of 27 BCE.
Category: States
- c. 1184 BCEAeneas reaches Latium (legendary)
In Roman legend the Trojan prince Aeneas escapes Troy, whose fall tradition dates to 1184 BCE, and settles in Latium, founding Lavinium. Romans later claimed descent from him.
- c. 753 BCERomulus founds Rome (traditional)
Roman tradition, fixed by the scholar Varro, dates Romulus's founding of Rome to 753 BCE. Archaeology shows huts on the Palatine in the 9th-8th centuries and a gradual merging of settlements, not one founding act.
- c. 715 BCENuma Pompilius becomes Rome's second king (traditional)
Tradition credits Numa (reign c. 715-672 BCE) with Rome's religious institutions, including the Vestal Virgins and the pontiffs, and with adding January and February to the calendar. Largely unverified.
- c. 672 BCETullus Hostilius destroys Alba Longa (traditional)
Tradition says Rome's third king (reign c. 672-640 BCE) razed the neighbouring Latin city of Alba Longa and moved its people to Rome. The story of his death by lightning is legend.
- c. 616 BCETarquinius Priscus begins the Etruscan dynasty (traditional)
Tradition makes Tarquinius Priscus (reign c. 616-578 BCE) the first of three Etruscan-descended kings of Rome. He is credited with the Circus Maximus and the Cloaca Maxima, and with starting the Capitoline temple.
- c. 600 BCECloaca Maxima drains the Forum valley (traditional)
Tradition credits Tarquinius Priscus with building the Cloaca Maxima, a sewer draining the marshy ground of the future Roman Forum, c. 600 BCE. Archaeology dates it only to the kingdom or early Republic.
- c. 578 BCEServius Tullius becomes king; census and classes (traditional)
Tradition credits the sixth king (reign c. 578-535 BCE) with Rome's first census and the property-based voting classes. Scholars see a gradual process; some identify him with the Etruscan Mastarna.
- c. 535 BCETarquin the Proud seizes the throne (traditional)
According to Livy, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus has Servius Tullius murdered with the help of his wife Tullia and takes power, c. 535 BCE. He rules as a tyrant and completes the Capitoline temple.
- c. 509 BCEFirst treaty between Rome and Carthage
Polybius preserves a treaty limiting Roman and Carthaginian shipping and raiding in Latium and Africa, which he dates just after the Republic's founding (c. 509-508 BCE). Its date is calculated, not recorded.
- c. 509 BCETarquin expelled; the Republic founded (traditional)
Tradition says the rape of Lucretia led Lucius Junius Brutus to drive out Tarquin the Proud, replacing the king with two annual consuls. Modern scholars doubt the story and suspect a coup or an Etruscan occupation.
- c. 509 BCETemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus dedicated
Livy dates the dedication of Rome's greatest temple, on the Capitoline, to 13 September 509 BCE; Dionysius says 507. Begun under Priscus and finished under Superbus, it housed the cult of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
- c. 496 BCEBattle of Lake Regillus (traditional)
Tradition says Rome defeated a coalition of Latin cities at Lake Regillus c. 496 BCE, leading to the treaty of 493 BCE. Our accounts come from much later historians.
- c. 494 BCEFirst secession of the plebs; tribunes created (traditional)
Tradition says that in 494 BCE indebted plebeians left Rome for the Sacred Mount until the patricians agreed to sacrosanct tribunes of the plebs, who could protect citizens and veto magistrates. Sources vary on the details.
- c. 493 BCEFoedus Cassianum: Rome and the Latin League (traditional)
Tradition dates to 493 BCE a treaty, named for consul Spurius Cassius, between Rome and thirty Latin cities: peace, joint defence against neighbours, shared spoils and colonies. Dionysius preserves its text.
- c. 451 BCEThe Twelve Tables (traditional)
A board of ten magistrates, the decemvirs, is said to have written Rome's first public laws c. 451-449 BCE after plebeian pressure. The text is lost and survives only in later quotations.
- c. 445 BCEConsular tribunes replace consuls (traditional)
Tradition says that in 445 BCE, when plebeians demanded the consulship, a compromise created consular tribunes who could be plebeian. Livy's lists for the period are inconsistent.
- c. 396 BCERome destroys Etruscan Veii (traditional)
In c. 396 BCE the dictator Camillus takes Veii, the Etruscan city near Rome, by tunnelling under its defences, according to Livy. Its fall extends Roman power in central Italy.
- c. 390 BCEGauls defeat Rome at the Allia and sack the city
Senonian Gauls under Brennus crush a Roman army at the Allia and occupy Rome until paid off. Tradition says 390 BCE; Polybius's chronology gives c. 387. Later accounts embroider the story.
- c. 367 BCELicinian-Sextian laws: a plebeian consul (traditional)
Tradition says the tribunes Licinius and Sextius won laws in 367 BCE easing debt and requiring at least one plebeian consul a year. The wider account of the period is debated.
- c. 343 BCEFirst Samnite War (traditional)
Rome fights the Samnites of the central Apennines over Campania, 343-341 BCE, by the traditional dating. Livy is the only continuous source, and some historians doubt parts of his account.
- c. 340 BCELatin War ends the Latin League
Rome defeats the Latin cities and their Campanian allies, 340-338 BCE (modern scholars think the traditional dates run about four years early). The Latin League is dissolved and its cities are absorbed or tied to Rome.
- c. 326 BCESecond Samnite War (traditional)
The long war between Rome and the Samnites, 326-304 BCE by the traditional dating, ends in Roman gains in central and southern Italy. Many battle narratives are later reconstructions, and casualty figures are likely exaggerated.
- c. 321 BCERoman army humiliated at the Caudine Forks
In 321 BCE, by the traditional date, the Samnite leader Gaius Pontius traps two consular armies in a mountain pass. The Romans surrender and pass under the yoke; Rome later rejects the terms and the war resumes.
- 312 BCEAppius Claudius begins the Appian Way
As censor in 312 BCE, Appius Claudius Caecus begins the Via Appia from Rome toward Capua. The road is later extended to Brundisium; he is also credited with the Aqua Appia aqueduct.
- c. 298 BCEThird Samnite War
Rome faces the Samnites and a coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians and Gauls, 298-290 BCE. Victory at Sentinum and the end of Samnite resistance give Rome control of much of central Italy.
- 295 BCEBattle of Sentinum
In 295 BCE the consuls Fabius Rullianus and Decius Mus beat Samnites and Senone Gauls in the decisive battle of the Third Samnite War. Decius dies in a ritual self-sacrifice; the Etruscan and Umbrian allies withdraw.
- 287 BCELex Hortensia ends the Conflict of the Orders
Traditionally in 287 BCE, after a plebeian secession, the dictator Hortensius makes decisions of the plebeian assembly binding on all citizens without Senate approval. It marks the end of the patrician-plebeian struggle.
- 280 BCEPyrrhus lands in Italy and wins at Heraclea
Called by Tarentum, King Pyrrhus of Epirus crosses to Italy in 280 BCE and defeats a Roman army at Heraclea. Some Greek and Italian cities in Rome's sphere defect to him.
- 279 BCEBattle of Asculum: the original "Pyrrhic victory"
In 279 BCE Pyrrhus beats the Romans again at Asculum but at a heavy cost. The phrase "Pyrrhic victory" comes from a remark ascribed to him, though historians doubt he said it.
- 279 BCERome and Carthage ally against Pyrrhus
In 279 BCE, during the war with Pyrrhus, Rome and Carthage renew their treaty with a mutual aid pledge. Carthage supplies ships and crews are not forced to disembark. The treaty is the fourth between the two.
- 275 BCEPyrrhus withdraws after Beneventum
After a campaign in Sicily against Carthage, Pyrrhus returns to Italy and is defeated or held to a draw by the Romans at Beneventum in 275 BCE. He leaves Italy for Epirus.
- 272 BCERome takes Tarentum; mastery of southern Italy
Rome captures Tarentum in 272 BCE, the last major power to resist, and Pyrrhus dies in Greece the same year. Rome now dominates the Italian peninsula and has gained prestige across the Mediterranean.
- 264 BCEFirst Punic War begins over Messana
Rome's assembly agrees in 264 BCE to help the Mamertine mercenaries holding Messana in Sicily against Syracuse and Carthage. The war with Carthage that follows lasts until 241 BCE.
- 264 BCERome destroys Etruscan Volsinii
Asked for help by Volsinii's aristocrats against its freed slaves, Rome besieges and razes the city in 264 BCE and moves its people to a new site on Lake Bolsena. Etruscan independence is all but over.
- 260 BCEBattle of Mylae: Rome's fleet wins at sea
In 260 BCE the consul Gaius Duilius defeats a Carthaginian fleet off Sicily, using the corvus, a boarding bridge fitted to Roman ships, to turn naval battles into infantry fights.
- 241 BCEAegates Islands; Carthage leaves Sicily
In 241 BCE Gaius Lutatius Catulus destroys the Carthaginian relief fleet. By the treaty Carthage evacuates Sicily and pays 3,200 talents; Sicily becomes Rome's first province.
- c. 238 BCERome seizes Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage
As Carthage crushes its mutinous mercenaries, Rome takes Sardinia and Corsica in 238 BCE and demands 1,200 more talents. Polybius calls this the greatest cause of the next war.
- 226 BCEEbro Treaty sets the Rome-Carthage boundary in Spain
Hasdrubal the Fair agrees in 226 BCE that Carthage will not expand north of the Ebro. Rome's later tie to Saguntum, south of the river, becomes the pretext for Hannibal's war.
- 219 BCEHannibal captures Saguntum
After eight months' siege, Hannibal takes Saguntum in 219 BCE, a town allied to Rome south of the Ebro. Rome demands his surrender, Carthage refuses, and the Second Punic War begins.
- 218 BCEBattle of the Trebia
Hannibal defeats a Roman army at the Trebia in December 218 BCE, his first major victory in Italy. Most of his elephants die in the winter cold afterwards.
- 218 BCEHannibal crosses the Alps
In autumn 218 BCE Hannibal leads his army and some 38 elephants from Spain over the Alps into Italy. Most elephants die and the exact pass is still disputed.
- 217 BCEBattle of Lake Trasimene
In 217 BCE Hannibal ambushes a Roman army beside Lake Trasimene and kills the consul Flaminius. Rome appoints Fabius Maximus dictator; his strategy of delay gives us the word "Fabian".
- 216 BCEBattle of Cannae
Hannibal's double envelopment destroys a much larger Roman army at Cannae in 216 BCE; ancient sources give tens of thousands dead. Capua and other southern cities defect, but Rome refuses peace.
- 214 BCEFirst Macedonian War
After Cannae, Philip V of Macedon allies with Hannibal (215 BCE). Rome keeps him busy in Greece through Aetolian allies until the stalemate ends in the Peace of Phoenice in 205 BCE.
- 212 BCERome takes Syracuse; Archimedes killed
After a siege begun in 213 BCE, Marcellus takes Syracuse in 212 and sacks it. Archimedes, whose war machines had held the Romans off, is killed by a soldier despite orders to spare him.
- 207 BCEBattle of the Metaurus
In 207 BCE two Roman consuls destroy Hasdrubal Barca's army marching to reinforce his brother Hannibal. Hasdrubal dies in the battle; Hannibal withdraws to Bruttium.
- 206 BCEBattle of Ilipa: Scipio drives Carthage from Spain
In spring 206 BCE Scipio defeats Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago near Ilipa with an unconventional battle line. Carthaginian control of Iberia, and its silver and manpower, ends.
- 202 BCEBattle of Zama ends the Second Punic War
Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal near Zama in 202 BCE. In 201 Carthage accepts peace: it loses its overseas territory and most of its navy, pays a large indemnity, and may not wage war without Rome's consent.
- 197 BCEBattle of Cynoscephalae
In 197 BCE Flamininus's legions defeat Philip V's Macedonian phalanx in Thessaly. Philip accepts Roman terms: he withdraws from the Greek cities, pays 1,000 talents and gives up most of his fleet.
- 197 BCEHispania divided into two Roman provinces
In 197 BCE Rome organises its Iberian territory as Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, each governed by a praetor, after taking it from Carthage in the Second Punic War.
- 196 BCEFlamininus proclaims the "freedom of the Greeks"
At the Isthmian Games of 196 BCE the Roman general Flamininus declares the Greek cities free of Macedonian rule. Rome nonetheless keeps garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis and Demetrias until 194.
- 190 BCEBattle of Magnesia defeats Antiochus III
Rome and Pergamon crush the Seleucid king Antiochus III at Magnesia ad Sipylum in December 190 BCE. Pergamene cavalry is decisive; Antiochus loses his hold on Asia Minor.
- 188 BCETreaty of Apamea
In 188 BCE Antiochus III gives up Asia Minor west of the Taurus, pays 15,000 talents, limits his fleet and drops his elephants. Pergamon and Rhodes gain most of the land; Rome gains hegemony without annexing it.
- c. 183 BCEHannibal dies in exile
Hannibal dies in Bithynia, probably by poison, as Roman envoys press for his surrender; sources give 183, 182 or 181 BCE, and some blame King Prusias or a fever.
- 168 BCEBattle of Pydna ends the Macedonian kingdom
On 22 June 168 BCE Aemilius Paullus beats Perseus of Macedon. The legions break the phalanx on uneven ground; Perseus is paraded in Rome and Macedon is split into four republics.
- 149 BCEThird Punic War begins
Provoked by Numidian raids, Carthage fights back in 149 BCE without Roman leave. Rome uses this as a pretext, lands at Utica and demands Carthage abandon its city.
- 148 BCEMacedonia becomes a Roman province
Andriscus, a pretender, revives the Macedonian kingdom in 150 BCE. He is defeated in 148 by Metellus Macedonicus, who makes Macedonia a Roman province, a process that may have been gradual. Some sources give 146.
- c. 147 BCEViriathus leads Lusitanian resistance
From c. 147 to 139 BCE the Lusitanian leader Viriathus defeats several Roman armies in western Spain. Rome repudiates a treaty with him, and Caepio bribes men who murder him in his sleep.
- 146 BCERome destroys Carthage
In 146 BCE Scipio Aemilianus storms Carthage and the Romans take it street by street for six days. About 50,000 survivors are enslaved and the territory becomes the province of Africa.
- 146 BCERome sacks Corinth; Achaean League dissolved
After defeating the Achaean League in 146 BCE, Lucius Mummius plunders and destroys Corinth. Greece is brought under the governor of Macedonia and Corinth stays in ruins until Caesar refounds it in 44 BCE.
- 133 BCEAttalus III leaves Pergamon to Rome
The last king of Pergamon, Attalus III, dies childless in 133 BCE and wills his kingdom to Rome. A pretender, Aristonicus, raises a revolt in 131 that Rome suppresses in 129.
- 133 BCENumantia falls to Scipio Aemilianus
After a ring of fortresses and a long siege, Scipio Aemilianus ends the Numantine War in 133 BCE. Most Celtiberian defenders die rather than surrender; Spain is quiet for over fifty years.
- 133 BCETiberius Gracchus: land reform and murder
As tribune in 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus pushes a law to redistribute public land, deposing a fellow tribune who vetoes it. When he seeks re-election, senators led by Scipio Nasica beat him and his supporters to death.
- 123 BCEGaius Gracchus holds the tribunate (123-122)
Tribune in 123 and 122 BCE, Gaius Gracchus fixes the price of grain, gives corruption-court juries to the equestrians and backs colonies, including one at Carthage. He loses a bid for a third term.
- 121 BCEFirst "ultimate decree"; Gaius Gracchus dies
In 121 BCE the Senate issues the first senatus consultum ultimum, urging consul Opimius to defend the state. Fulvius Flaccus is killed and Gaius Gracchus dies, by murder or suicide. Opimius is later acquitted.
- 111 BCEJugurthine War
Rome fights Jugurtha of Numidia, who had bribed Roman senators. Gaius Marius, elected consul in 107 BCE, ends it when his quaestor Sulla gets Jugurtha handed over by King Bocchus in 105.
- c. 107 BCEMarius opens the legions to the poor (traditional)
Tradition credits Marius from 107 BCE with enlisting landless volunteers and standardising the cohort and eagle, making armies loyal to their generals. Most modern scholars reject a single "Marian reform".
- January 3, 106 BCECicero is born
Marcus Tullius Cicero is born at Arpinum on 3 January 106 BCE. A lawyer, consul, orator and writer, he becomes the main voice of the late Republic.
- 105 BCEBattle of Arausio
In 105 BCE the Cimbri and Teutones destroy two Roman armies at Arausio, which were split by a river and by their commanders' rivalry. It is Rome's costliest defeat since Cannae.
- 102 BCEBattle of Aquae Sextiae
In 102 BCE Marius, re-elected consul year after year, destroys the Teutones and Ambrones in southern Gaul and captures their king Teutobod.
- 101 BCEBattle of Vercellae ends the Cimbrian War
In 101 BCE Marius nearly annihilates the Cimbri at Vercellae in northern Italy and their leaders Boiorix and Lugius are killed. The invasion that began in 113 BCE ends.
- 100 BCEJulius Caesar is born
Gaius Julius Caesar is born in Rome on 12 or 13 July 100 BCE, into the patrician Julian clan. Sources disagree on the day.
- 91 BCESocial War: Italian allies revolt
Rome's Italian allies, including Marsi, Samnites and Lucanians, rebel in 91 BCE over land and citizenship. Rome wins but extends citizenship in stages (Lex Julia 90, Lex Plautia Papiria 89); the last rebels settle in 87.
- 89 BCEFirst Mithridatic War
Rome fights Mithridates VI of Pontus in Anatolia and Greece, 89-85 BCE. Sulla wins the battles but must settle by the Treaty of Dardanos in 85: Mithridates keeps his kingdom; the Senate never ratifies it.
- 88 BCEAsiatic Vespers: Romans massacred in Asia
In 88 BCE Mithridates VI of Pontus overruns the province of Asia and orders the killing of Romans and Italians. Ancient sources give 80,000 to 150,000 dead, likely exaggerated.
- 88 BCESulla marches on Rome
In 88 BCE, in a quarrel over the command against Mithridates, consul Sulla leads his legions into Rome. Marius and the tribune Sulpicius are outlawed. Roman armies now act as a political weapon.
- 86 BCEMarius takes a seventh consulship and dies
Marius returns with Cinna in 87 BCE and their men purge their opponents. He is consul for the seventh time in 86 BCE but dies on 13 January, a few days into the year.
- 86 BCESulla takes and sacks Athens
In 86 BCE Sulla storms Athens, which had joined Mithridates, and the city is heavily damaged and looted. He then wins at Chaeronea and Orchomenus, ending Pontic control of Greece.
- 82 BCEBattle of the Colline Gate
On 1 November 82 BCE Sulla defeats the Marian and Samnite forces at the gates of Rome, ending the civil war in Italy.
- 82 BCESulla becomes dictator; proscriptions begin
In 82 BCE a law makes Sulla dictator with no time limit to remake the Republic. His first proscription list, published on 3 November, outlaws enemies and puts a price on their heads.
- c. 81 BCESulla's constitutional reforms
Sulla, c. 81-80 BCE, expands the standing criminal courts, weakens the tribunate, adds magistrates and enlarges the Senate. Many measures prove unworkable and are soon undone.
- c. 80 BCESertorius rebels in Hispania
The Marian general Sertorius, proscribed by Sulla, controls Hispania from c. 80 BCE with Roman exiles and Iberian allies. Pompey and Metellus wear him down; he is murdered at a banquet in 73 or 72.
- 80 BCESulla resigns the dictatorship; dies in 78
Sulla lays down the dictatorship early in 80 BCE and serves as consul with Metellus Pius. He then retires and dies at his villa near Puteoli in 78.
- 73 BCESpartacus leads a gladiator revolt
In 73 BCE some 70 gladiators escape from a school at Capua under Spartacus, Crixus and Oenomaus, and defeat the forces sent against them. The revolt grows into the Third Servile War.
- 71 BCECrassus defeats Spartacus
In 71 BCE Crassus routs Spartacus's army at the Silarius; Spartacus presumably dies. About 6,000 prisoners are crucified along the Appian Way. Pompey claims credit for finishing the war.
- 70 BCECicero prosecutes Verres
In 70 BCE Cicero, about 36, prosecutes the former governor of Sicily Gaius Verres for corruption. The case makes him Rome's leading orator.
- 70 BCEPompey and Crassus are consuls
Pompey and Crassus, rivals after the Spartacus war, are elected consuls for 70 BCE partly because their armies camp outside Rome.
- 67 BCEHyrcanus II and Aristobulus II go to war
Near the end of Salome Alexandra's life, her younger son Aristobulus II seizes fortresses and declares himself king. After she dies in 67 BCE a civil war with his brother Hyrcanus II, backed by Antipater, draws in Rome. It ends in 63 with Pompey.
- 67 BCEPompey is given command against the pirates
The Lex Gabinia of 67 BCE gives Pompey sweeping powers against Mediterranean piracy. He clears the western Mediterranean in 40 days and ends the war in about three months.
- 66 BCEPompey takes the Eastern command
The Lex Manilia of 66 BCE gives Pompey command against Mithridates VI. He beats him at the Lycus, makes Tigranes of Armenia a Roman ally while Mithridates flees to the Crimea.
- 64 BCESyria becomes a Roman province
Pompey annexes the Seleucid-held cities of Syria in 64 BCE, creating the Roman province of Syria. Judea becomes a client state of Rome.
- 63 BCECaesar elected pontifex maximus
In 63 BCE Caesar wins the election for pontifex maximus, head of Rome's state religion, defeating Catulus and Servilius Isauricus.
- 63 BCECatilinarian conspirators executed without trial
On 5 December 63 BCE the Senate debates the fate of five arrested conspirators, including Lentulus and Cethegus, and they are executed without trial. Cicero is later attacked for it.
- 63 BCECicero, consul, exposes Catiline's conspiracy
After losing the consular election, Catiline is accused of plotting to seize power. Consul Cicero denounces him in the First Catilinarian speech in November 63 BCE and Catiline leaves Rome to join an armed force in Etruria.
- 63 BCEMithridates VI dies; the Third Mithridatic War ends
Cornered in the Crimea by a revolt of his son Pharnaces, Mithridates VI dies in 63 BCE after a failed suicide attempt. Pontus becomes Roman and the Third Mithridatic War ends.
- 63 BCEPompey captures Jerusalem
After a three-month siege Pompey takes Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Judea becomes a client state of Rome.
- September 23, 63 BCEOctavian, the future Augustus, is born
Gaius Octavius is born in Rome on 23 September 63 BCE, the year of Cicero's consulship. He will become Caesar's heir and the first emperor.
- 62 BCECatiline killed at Pistoria
In early January 62 BCE Antonius defeats Catiline's army at Pistoria and Catiline dies in the fighting. The conspiracy ends. Our main sources, Sallust and Cicero, were hostile to him.
- c. 60 BCEAndronicus of Rhodes edits Aristotle
About 60 BCE Andronicus of Rhodes, reported as the eleventh head of the Peripatetic school, publishes a new edition of Aristotle and Theophrastus, according to Plutarch. It drew on a library Sulla took to Rome. Its arrangement may underlie modern editions.
- c. 60 BCEThe First Triumvirate takes shape
Caesar, Pompey and Crassus form an informal alliance, between July 60 and January 59 BCE. It has no legal standing, unlike the later Second Triumvirate. Ancient sources disagree on whether it came before or after Caesar's election as consul.
- 59 BCECaesar's consulship; Pompey marries Julia
Caesar holds the consulship in 59 BCE, allied with Pompey and Crassus. Pompey marries Caesar's daughter Julia the same year.
- 58 BCECicero exiled and recalled
Clodius, tribune in 58 BCE, passes laws that force Cicero into exile over the executions of the Catilinarian conspirators. The Senate votes to recall him and he returns to Italy on 5 August 57.
- 58 BCEGallic Wars
Caesar conquers Gaul between 58 and 50 BCE, starting by blocking the Helvetii's migration. Modern historians consider his own casualty figures, such as 430,000 Germani killed, to be exaggerated.
- 56 BCEConference at Luca
Caesar, Pompey and Crassus meet at Luca in summer 56 BCE to renew their alliance.
- 55 BCECaesar bridges the Rhine and lands in Britain
In 55 BCE Caesar crosses the Rhine on a bridge built in ten days, then sails for Britain, setting out after midnight on 23 August. He lands again in 54 BCE.
- 54 BCEJulia, wife of Pompey, dies
Caesar's daughter Julia dies in childbirth in 54 BCE. Some ancient writers saw her death as making a rift between Caesar and Pompey inevitable, but modern scholars treat this cautiously.
- June 53 BCEBattle of Carrhae
In June 53 BCE the Parthians under Surena defeat Crassus's invasion force at Carrhae, killing about 20,000 Romans and capturing 10,000. Crassus dies during truce talks, which ends the First Triumvirate.
- 52 BCEClodius killed; Pompey sole consul
Clodius is killed near Bovillae on 18 January 52 BCE. Unrest blocks the elections for weeks, and Pompey is elected sole consul, an irregular office.
- September 52 BCEVercingetorix surrenders at Alesia
In September 52 BCE Caesar besieges the Gallic leader Vercingetorix at Alesia. After the relief army fails and disperses, Vercingetorix surrenders. He is paraded in Caesar's triumph and executed in 46.
- January 49 BCECaesar crosses the Rubicon
After the Senate demands on 7 January 49 BCE that he give up his command, Caesar crosses the Rubicon on 10 or 11 January with his army, starting a civil war against Pompey and the Senate.
- 49 BCECaesar's civil war
The war between Caesar and Pompey's senatorial side runs from January 49 to Caesar's victory at Munda on 17 March 45 BCE. It is fought in Italy, Spain, Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor and Africa.
- 48 BCEAlexandrian War; Caesar and Cleopatra
Besieged in the palace quarter of Alexandria, Caesar sides with Cleopatra against her brother Ptolemy XIII. After relief arrives and Ptolemy dies in early 47 BCE, he makes her queen. Caesarion is born around June.
- 48 BCEPompey is murdered in Egypt
Pompey is killed on arrival in Egypt on the orders of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar reaches Alexandria on 2 October 48 BCE and learns of the murder there.
- August 9, 48 BCEBattle of Pharsalus
On 9 August 48 BCE Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in central Greece. Pompey flees disguised as a commoner and sails to Egypt.
- 47 BCEAntipater helps Caesar; the Herodian rise
In 47 BCE Antipater the Idumaean, adviser to Hyrcanus II, helps Julius Caesar at Alexandria and is rewarded with Roman citizenship and the post of procurator of Judea. He gives his sons Phasael and Herod the governorships of Jerusalem and Galilee. He is poisoned in 43.
- August 2, 47 BCEBattle of Zela: "Veni, vidi, vici"
On 2 August 47 BCE Caesar defeats Pharnaces II of Pontus, son of Mithridates VI, at Zela. Plutarch says he reported it to Rome in the words "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered").
- 46 BCEBattle of Thapsus; Cato dies at Utica
In early 46 BCE Caesar defeats Metellus Scipio at Thapsus in North Africa. Cato the Younger, garrisoned at Utica, kills himself rather than submit. Scipio and King Juba of Numidia also die by their own hands.
- January 1, 45 BCEThe Julian calendar takes effect
Caesar proposes a calendar reform in 46 BCE, advised by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, and it takes effect on 1 January 45. To realign it with the seasons, 46 BCE is lengthened to 445 days.
- March 17, 45 BCEBattle of Munda
On 17 March 45 BCE Caesar defeats the Pompeians under Gnaeus and Sextus Pompeius in southern Spain, in the last battle of the civil war. Labienus is killed, and Gnaeus is hunted down afterward.
- 44 BCECaesar named dictator in perpetuity
In early 44 BCE Caesar is proclaimed dictator in perpetuity (dictator perpetuo). Weeks later a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius kills him.
- 44 BCECicero's Philippics against Antony
After Caesar's death Cicero delivers a series of speeches attacking Mark Antony in 44 and 43 BCE, modelled on Demosthenes's speeches against Philip II of Macedon. They are called the Philippics.
- March 15, 44 BCEAssassination of Julius Caesar
On the Ides of March a conspiracy of about 60, led by Brutus and Cassius, stabs Caesar, dictator in perpetuity, in the Curia of Pompey. The Republic is not restored: civil war follows.
- May 8, 44 BCEOctavian accepts Caesar's inheritance
Octavian reaches Rome on 6 May 44 BCE. Two days later he accepts Caesar's will, which names him main heir on condition that he takes Caesar's name.
- April 21, 43 BCEBattle of Mutina
Mark Antony, besieging Decimus Brutus at Mutina, is beaten at Forum Gallorum and Mutina in April 43 BCE, though sources differ on how decisive the second was. Consul Hirtius is killed and Pansa dies of wounds. Octavian is left in sole command.
- August 19, 43 BCEOctavian becomes consul at nineteen
On 19 August 43 BCE, at the age of 19, Octavian takes the consulship.
- November 27, 43 BCESecond Triumvirate
Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus form a triumvirate in October 43 BCE. Unlike the First, it is legal: the Lex Titia of 27 November gives them five years of near-absolute power.
- December 7, 43 BCECicero is killed
Named in the triumvirs' proscriptions, Cicero is killed on 7 December 43 BCE near Formiae while trying to flee, on Antony's orders. His head and hands are displayed on the Rostra in Rome.
- October 42 BCEBattles of Philippi
On 3 and 23 October 42 BCE Antony and Octavian fight Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia. Cassius dies after the first battle and Brutus kills himself after the second, ending the conspirators' cause.
- 41 BCEPerusine War
Octavian fights Lucius Antonius, Mark Antony's brother, in 41 and 40 BCE. Lucius occupies Rome in the summer of 41.
- 40 BCEParthians install Antigonus; Herod named king
In 40 BCE the Parthians invade Syria and back Antigonus, last Hasmonean ruler, who takes Jerusalem and mutilates Hyrcanus II so he cannot be high priest. Herod flees to Rome, where the Senate names him king of Judea (40 or 39, by source).
- September 40 BCETreaty of Brundisium
In September 40 BCE Octavian and Antony divide the Roman world: Antony takes the east, Octavian keeps the west and gets Illyricum, and Lepidus keeps Africa. Antony marries Octavian's sister Octavia to seal it.
- 39 BCETreaty of Misenum
In 39 BCE the triumvirs make peace with Sextus Pompey, who keeps Sicily and Sardinia and gains Corsica and the Peloponnese in return for lifting his blockade of Italy. The pact collapses when Antony refuses to give up Achaea.
- 37 BCEHerod takes Jerusalem
In 37 BCE (36 by some arguments) Herod, with Roman help, takes Jerusalem after a siege and ends Hasmonean rule. Antigonus is executed, beheaded by Antony according to Josephus.
- September 3, 36 BCEBattle of Naulochus
On 3 September 36 BCE Agrippa, Octavian's admiral, destroys the fleet of Sextus Pompey off Sicily. Octavian then strips Lepidus of his power and becomes sole ruler of the west.
- 34 BCEDonations of Alexandria
In autumn 34 BCE Antony proclaims Cleopatra queen of kings and Caesarion Caesar's legitimate heir, and gives lands to his children with Cleopatra. The Senate rejects the grants and Octavian intensifies his attacks on Antony.
- c. 31 BCEHerod switches sides to Octavian
Herod had backed Antony. After Actium in 31 BCE he meets Octavian at Rhodes (31 or 30, by source) and is confirmed as king by Octavian, soon Augustus.
- September 2, 31 BCEBattle of Actium
On 2 September 31 BCE Agrippa's fleet routs Antony's and Cleopatra's off Actium on the Ionian Sea. Antony escapes with a few ships and his army later deserts.
- August 30 BCEAlexandria falls; Antony and Cleopatra die
Octavian takes Alexandria on 1 August 30 BCE. Antony stabs himself and Cleopatra kills herself on 12 August. Caesarion is put to death and Egypt ends as a kingdom, becoming Octavian's personal possession.
- January 16, 27 BCEThe settlement of 27 BCE; Octavian becomes Augustus
On 13 January 27 BCE Octavian formally returns power to the Senate. On 16 January he accepts a ten-year charge over key provinces, including Hispania, Gaul, Syria and Egypt, which gives him most of the legions. The Senate gives him the title Augustus.