Haiti
The Haitian state from its independence in 1804 onward: its governments, its relations with France and the powers, and its rule over the whole of Hispaniola from 1822 to 1844.
Category: States, Places
- January 1, 1804Dessalines declares the independence of Haiti at Gonaïves
On 1 January 1804 Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaims Saint-Domingue independent under the old Taíno name Haiti. It is the first state founded by a successful slave revolt and the second independent republic in the Americas.
- February 1804 – April 1804Dessalines orders the killing of the remaining French in Haiti
From February to April 1804 Dessalines has the French who stayed in Haiti killed, an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 people. He exempts some groups, including Poles and Germans. It is defended as security against a French return.
- September 1804Dessalines is proclaimed Emperor Jacques I of Haiti
In September 1804 Dessalines's generals proclaim him emperor of Haiti, and he is crowned the following month. He is killed in an ambush in 1806.
- October 1806Dessalines is killed and Haiti divides into Christophe's north and Pétion's south
After the ambush of Emperor Jean-Jacques Dessalines in October 1806, Haiti splits in two: Henri Christophe rules the north and Alexandre Pétion heads a republic in the south and west. The division lasts until 1820.
- February 9, 1822Haitian president Boyer takes Santo Domingo and rules the whole island
On 9 February 1822 Jean-Pierre Boyer enters Santo Domingo with some 10,000-12,000 troops, uniting Hispaniola under Haiti and ending slavery in the east. The occupation lasts 22 years.
- 1825Haiti borrows 30 million francs in Paris to pay the first instalment
In late 1825 a bond issue of 30 million francs at 6% over 25 years, arranged by Ternaux Gandolphe and a Laffitte-led consortium, nets Haiti only 24 million after commissions. It is the first of the loans that become the 'double debt'.
- April 17, 1825Charles X recognises Haiti's independence in return for an indemnity of 150 million francs
A royal ordinance of 17 April 1825, backed by a French naval squadron, grants Haiti's independence on condition that it pay 150 million francs to former colonists. Haiti borrows in France to pay, a burden that lasts for generations.
- July 3, 1825French squadron under Baron de Mackau arrives at Port-au-Prince with Charles X's ordinance
On 3 July 1825 Captain Mackau reaches Port-au-Prince aboard La Circé; fourteen French warships with 528 cannons soon stand off the city. They carry the ordinance demanding 150 million francs for recognition of Haiti's independence.
- July 11, 1825Haiti's president Boyer and Senate accept France's terms under the guns of the squadron
Jean-Pierre Boyer accepts the French conditions on 8 July 1825, asking for a review, and the Haitian Senate registers the undertaking on 11 July. Haiti agrees to pay 150 million francs to former colonists in five annual instalments.
- 1826 – 1838Haiti pays the first fifth of the indemnity, then falls into default
After paying the first 30 million francs in 1826, partly with treasury funds shipped to France, Haiti cannot meet later instalments. It defaults on both the indemnity and the loan until the 1838 renegotiation.
- February 12, 1838France and Haiti sign a treaty reducing the indemnity and recognising Haiti outright
On 12 February 1838 France lowers the remaining debt to 90 million francs, payable over 30 years, and recognises Haiti unconditionally. One source gives 60 million, and Haiti is pushed to borrow again to pay.
- March 1843Boyer is overthrown in Haiti and goes into exile
In March 1843 a liberal revolt forces Jean-Pierre Boyer out of Haiti after 25 years in power; Charles Hérard takes over. The turmoil gives the Dominican independence movement the opening it needs.
- February 27, 1844Dominican patriots declare independence from Haiti in Santo Domingo
On the night of 27 February 1844 Mella, Sánchez and Duarte's Trinitarios proclaim a separate state in the east of Hispaniola, ending 22 years of Haitian rule. The Dominican Republic is born.
- March 19, 1844 – March 30, 1844Dominican forces defeat Haitian armies at Azua and Santiago
In March 1844 Pedro Santana's troops repel a Haitian column at Azua (19 March), and José María Imbert's heavily outnumbered garrison beats Jean-Louis Pierrot's army at Santiago (30 March). The victories secure the newly declared Dominican Republic.
- April 1849Santana defeats Emperor Soulouque's invading Haitian army at Las Carreras
In April 1849 Pedro Santana defeats the Haitian army led in person by Emperor Faustin Soulouque in a two-day battle near Azua, the main Dominican victory between the 1844 battles and the last Haitian invasion of 1855-1856.
- December 1855 – January 1856Dominican troops defeat Haiti’s 1855–1856 invasion at Santomé and Sabana Larga
Dominican troops defeat the Haitian southern column at Santomé (22 December 1855), killing General Antoine Pierrot, and a larger Haitian army near Dajabón at Sabana Larga (27 January 1856).
- 1874 – 1875Haiti borrows from the Crédit Industriel et Commercial to clear the indemnity
In 1874-1875 Haiti takes two large loans from the Paris bank CIC to pay off the last of the independence debt. French banks kept about 40% of the capital in commissions and fees, according to the account on Wikipedia.
- 1881The Paris-run National Bank of Haiti is founded to handle Haiti's debt
A currency-issuing concession granted around 1880-1881 creates the Banque Nationale d'Haïti, set up by the Crédit Industriel et Commercial in Paris. It handles Haiti's debt payments and holds the right to issue its money.
- c. 1883Haiti finishes paying the 1825 indemnity to France
Sources disagree on when the indemnity itself was settled: Wikipedia's text gives 1883 and notes France acknowledged the 90 million francs in 1888, while a BnF chronology says 1878. Haiti's later loans kept its debts going.
- 1910 – 1911A US-backed consortium led by National City Bank takes over the National Bank of Haiti
In 1910-1911, with State Department backing, a consortium led by National City Bank of New York buys control of the Paris-run National Bank of Haiti, which becomes the Banque de la République d'Haïti.
- December 1914US Marines carry Haiti's gold reserve to New York
In December 1914, after President Oreste's overthrow, US forces remove about $500,000 of Haiti's gold from the national bank to National City Bank's vaults in New York. The bank had refused Haiti gold payments and asked for protection.
- July 28, 1915 – 1934United States Marines land in Haiti, beginning a 19-year occupation
On 28 July 1915 the US lands at Port-au-Prince on Woodrow Wilson's order and takes over Haiti's customs, banks and treasury. Forty percent of Haitian income goes to repay American and French lenders until 1934.
- 1922National City Bank fully acquires Haiti's national bank and moves it to New York
In 1922 National City Bank completes its purchase of the Banque de la République d'Haïti and moves its headquarters to New York City. Haiti's debt to France is now paid to American investors.
- October 2, 1937 – October 8, 1937Trujillo's army massacres Haitians along the Dominican border
From 2 to 8 October 1937, on Trujillo’s orders, the Dominican army kills Haitians in the border region. Estimates range from about 14,000 to 40,000 dead, and scholars generally settle on roughly 20,000.
- January 31, 1938Trujillo agrees to pay Haiti $525,000 for the 1937 massacre
The agreement signed in Washington on 31 January 1938 gives Haiti $525,000, about $30 a victim, against a US and Haitian demand for $750,000. The Dominican government accepts no responsibility for the deaths.
- 1947Haiti makes its final payment on the independence debt, 122 years after the ordinance
In 1947 Haiti finishes paying the debts that began in 1825, according to a 2022 New York Times analysis cited by Wikipedia. A US State Department release that year notes a $10 million Haitian internal loan, used partly to redeem the 1922 and 1923 bonds.
- April 7, 2003Haiti's president Aristide demands that France repay the independence indemnity
On 7 April 2003 President Jean-Bertrand Aristide demands over 21 billion US dollars from France, which he says equals the 90 million gold francs Haiti paid after independence, plus interest. France rejects the claim.
- April 2004Haiti's interim government withdraws the restitution claim against France
In April 2004, weeks after Aristide's removal, Prime Minister Gérard Latortue rescinds the demand, calling it 'illegal, ridiculous' and made 'only for political reasons'. Critics later link the claim to France's stance on Aristide, which is disputed.
- May 10, 2015Hollande recalls the 1825 indemnity in Guadeloupe, then visits Haiti
On 10 May 2015, opening the Mémorial ACTe, French president François Hollande evokes the 150 million francs and says he will 'pay the debt' on reaching Haiti. His office says he meant a moral debt; he visits Port-au-Prince on 12 May.
- c. 2016French Parliament votes to repeal Charles X's 1825 ordinance as a symbolic act
An amendment tabled on 9 June 2016 by Victorin Lurel to the equality and citizenship bill abrogates the 17 April 1825 ordinance. It is explicitly symbolic and offers no reparation; the exact date of final adoption is uncertain.
- May 20, 2022The New York Times publishes 'The Ransom', an analysis of Haiti's independence debt
The series, starting 20 May 2022, reconstructs Haiti's payments to France and its lenders and estimates they may have cost Haiti between 21 and 115 billion US dollars in lost growth. Historians debate its framing and estimates.
- April 17, 2025Macron announces a joint Franco-Haitian historians' commission on the 1825 indemnity
On 17 April 2025, the 200th anniversary of Charles X's ordinance, Emmanuel Macron says the indemnity 'put a price on the freedom of a young nation' and creates a commission of historians from both countries. No reparations are offered.