Holy Roman Empire
The Empire of the German lands and its emperors, to 1806.
Category: States
- 799 – 801Alcuin revises the Vulgate text at Tours
Around 799–801 Alcuin of York, abbot of Marmoutier at Tours under Charlemagne, has Bibles prepared from a corrected Vulgate. The aim is to recover Jerome's text, though his changes were probably modest.
- August 10, 843Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire
Grandsons of Charlemagne split his empire into three; Charles the Bald received West Francia, the territory that would become the Kingdom of France.
- July 27, 1214Philip II defeats the emperor and his allies at Bouvines
Philip II Augustus routed a larger coalition led by Emperor Otto IV in Flanders. The victory sealed the loss of Anjou and Normandy by the English crown and strengthened royal authority in France.
- November 16, 1414 – April 22, 1418The Council of Constance meets to end the Western Schism
Convened in 1414, when three men claimed to be pope, the council sidelines all three and elects Martin V in 1417. It also has the Czech reformer Jan Hus burned for heresy on 6 July 1415.
- May 1454Diet of Regensburg debates a crusade against the Ottomans
Emperor Frederick III's imperial diet at Regensburg takes up a crusade after the fall of Constantinople but only agrees to the war in principle. Frankfurt (Oct 1454) and Wiener Neustadt (1455) follow.
- 1459 – 1460Pius II calls the Congress of Mantua to organise a crusade
Pope Pius II gathers European princes at Mantua to answer the Ottoman advance; the crusade he proclaims in January 1460 for three years stays largely on paper.
- 1466Mentelin prints the first German Bible in Strasbourg
In 1466 Johannes Mentelin prints in Strasbourg the first Bible in German, a High German translation from the Vulgate. It is reprinted at least thirteen times before 1518, well before Luther.
- September 1494Charles VIII of France invades Italy, opening the Italian Wars
Claiming the Angevin right to Naples, Charles VIII crossed the Alps with a large army and artillery, starting the Italian Wars (1494-1559) between France, Spain, the Empire and Italian states.
- April 18, 1521Luther refuses to recant at the Diet of Worms
Before Emperor Charles V's Diet at Worms, Luther refuses on 18 April 1521 to recant his books. The Edict of Worms (25 May) outlaws him and bans his writings, but is never enforced in Germany, where princes protect him.
- April 23, 1523Charles V names the first inquisitor general of the Netherlands
On 23 April 1523 Charles V appoints Frans van der Hulst inquisitor general of the Seventeen Provinces, after edicts in 1521 banned Reformed worship. More than 1,300 people are executed as heretics there between 1523 and 1566.
- August 24, 1524 – 1525The German Peasants' War rises against the lords
From August 1524 peasants rise across German lands, adopting the Twelve Articles in March 1525. Luther urges the nobles to crush them, and the rebels lose at Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525. Up to 100,000 are killed.
- August 29, 1526Suleiman I destroys the Hungarian army at Mohács; Habsburgs inherit Bohemia and Hungary
King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia dies at Mohács, triggering the Habsburg inheritance contract. Ferdinand, brother of Emperor Charles V, takes Bohemia and a disputed claim to Hungary, a rival king being Zápolya.
- May 6, 1527Imperial troops sack Rome and besiege Clement VII
On 6 May 1527 the unpaid army of Charles V, with some 14,000 German Landsknechts and 6,000 Spanish soldiers, storms Rome. Clement VII surrenders on 6 June and agrees to a 400,000-ducat ransom. The sack is often called the end of the High Renaissance.
- April 1529Lutheran estates protest at the Diet of Speyer, giving 'Protestants' their name
The Diet of Speyer, opened 15 March 1529, overturns the 1526 settlement and enforces the Edict of Worms. Lutheran princes and cities lodge a formal protest in April, from which the name 'Protestants' comes.
- September 27, 1529 – October 1529Suleiman I besieges Vienna for the first time
Suleiman's army, backing John Zápolya against Ferdinand of Habsburg, besieges Vienna. Charles V is busy in Italy, but the defenders hold and the Ottomans withdraw before winter.
- February 24, 1530Clement VII crowns Charles V Holy Roman Emperor at Bologna
Pope Clement VII crowns Charles V Holy Roman Emperor at Bologna on 24 February 1530. Charles is the last emperor to receive a papal coronation.
- June 25, 1530The Augsburg Confession is presented to Charles V
On 25 June 1530 Lutheran estates present their statement of faith to Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg. Written by Melanchthon, Luther and others, it becomes the main confession of the Lutheran Church.
- February 27, 1531Protestant princes form the Schmalkaldic League
On 27 February 1531, at Schmalkalden, Philip of Hesse and John Frederick of Saxony lead Lutheran princes and cities into a defensive alliance against Emperor Charles V.
- 1534Luther publishes his complete German Bible
In 1534 Martin Luther completes his translation of the Old Testament, and the full Bible appears in Wittenberg. It helps establish High German as a literary language and remains widely used.
- August 1541Ottomans occupy Buda and partition Hungary into three parts
Suleiman's troops take Buda by a ruse, annexing central Hungary as an Ottoman province. Royal Hungary stays Habsburg and Transylvania goes to Zápolya's heir; the division lasts until 1699.
- December 13, 1545The Council of Trent opens to answer the Protestant Reformation
The Council of Trent opens on 13 December 1545 in northern Italy. It meets in three periods until 1563 and issues decrees on scripture, tradition, justification and the sacraments, while most Protestants stay away.
- April 24, 1547Charles V defeats the Schmalkaldic League at Mühlberg
On 24 April 1547 imperial forces rout the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League and capture John Frederick of Saxony, who loses his electoral title to his cousin Maurice. The Augsburg Interim follows in 1548.
- May 15, 1548Charles V issues the Augsburg Interim after defeating the Protestants
On 15 May 1548, after Mühlberg, Charles V orders Protestants to readopt Catholic practices, allowing only clerical marriage and communion in both kinds. Many pastors refuse, and it is mostly enforced where his army holds power.
- September 25, 1555The Peace of Augsburg lets each prince choose Lutheranism or Catholicism
Negotiated by Ferdinand I for Charles V, the peace of 25 September 1555 lets rulers make Lutheranism or Catholicism the faith of their lands; dissenters may emigrate. Calvinism gains legal recognition only in 1648.
- October 25, 1555 – February 24, 1558Charles V abdicates and divides his lands between Philip II and Ferdinand I
Charles V gives up the Netherlands (25 October 1555) and Spain (16 January 1556) to his son Philip II. His brother Ferdinand receives the Empire, as the Imperial Diet accepts on 24 February 1558. Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs part ways.
- 1563The Heidelberg Catechism is published in the Calvinist-leaning Palatinate
In 1563 Elector Frederick III of the Palatinate has the Heidelberg Catechism, mainly by Zacharias Ursinus, approved by a synod. Calvinism is not covered by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which tolerates only Lutherans.
- October 12, 1576Rudolf II succeeds Maximilian II as Holy Roman Emperor
Rudolf II becomes emperor on 12 October 1576, also ruling Bohemia, Hungary and Austria. His reign is later seen as one whose mistakes helped lead to the Thirty Years' War, though recent historians reassess that view.
- 1577The Formula of Concord settles Lutheran disputes
In 1576–1577 Jakob Andreä, Martin Chemnitz and others write the Formula of Concord for Elector Augustus of Saxony. About two-thirds of German Lutherans, including three electors, subscribe, and it draws a firm line against Calvinism.
- December 19, 1582 – 1588The Cologne War begins when Elector Gebhard Truchsess turns Protestant
On 19 December 1582 the Elector of Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, announces his conversion and then marries without resigning. Pope and chapter depose him in 1583, and war lasts to 1588, with Bavaria's Ernst winning.
- 1583Rudolf II moves the imperial court to Prague
In 1583 Rudolf II moves his court from Vienna to Prague, which becomes an imperial capital. He supports astronomers such as Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler and gathers a major collection of art and curiosities.
- 1593 – 1606The Long Turkish War between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans begins
In 1593 Emperor Rudolf II goes to war with the Ottoman Empire over Hungary. The war lasts thirteen years until the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606 and strains the Habsburgs' finances and their relations with their own Estates.
- 1598Ferdinand of Styria begins a strict Counter-Reformation in Inner Austria
From 1598 Archduke Ferdinand, later Emperor Ferdinand II and a Jesuit-educated Catholic, expels Protestant pastors and teachers from Inner Austria, with Graz as his base, and installs Catholic priests.
- 1606 – 1607Religious riot at Donauwörth leads to Catholic Bavaria occupying the Protestant town
In 1606 the Lutheran majority of Donauwörth bars a Catholic procession and a riot follows. In 1607 an imperial law lets the Duke of Bavaria punish the town, which Bavaria then occupies and re-Catholicises.
- November 11, 1606Peace of Zsitvatorok ends the Long Turkish War
Emperor Rudolf II and Sultan Ahmed I agree peace on the Zsitva River after 13 years of inconclusive war. The Ottomans keep Eger and Kanizsa, and the treaty sets the Habsburg-Ottoman frontier for half a century.
- 1608Matthias marches on Prague and forces Rudolf II to cede Hungary, Austria and Moravia
In 1608 Archduke Matthias, the emperor's brother, marches on Prague and forces Rudolf II to hand over Hungary, Austria and Moravia. Rudolf keeps Bohemia and the imperial title for the moment.
- May 14, 1608Protestant princes form the Protestant Union at Auhausen
On 14 May 1608 Protestant princes and cities led by Elector Frederick IV of the Palatinate form the Union at Auhausen, after Donauwörth and the Diet's demand for church lands taken since 1552. Lutheran Saxony stays out.
- March 25, 1609 – November 12, 1614The Jülich-Cleves succession crisis begins and draws in Europe's powers
Duke John William of Jülich-Cleves dies childless on 25 March 1609, and Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg claim his duchies. Union, League, France and Spain take sides. The Treaty of Xanten divides them on 12 November 1614.
- July 9, 1609Rudolf II grants the Letter of Majesty to Bohemia's Protestants
On 9 July 1609 Rudolf II, as King of Bohemia, signs the Letter of Majesty. It grants Protestants religious freedom and a committee of the Estates, the Defensors, to guard it. Its violation is later a cause of the 1618 revolt.
- July 10, 1609Catholic princes form the Catholic League under Maximilian of Bavaria
On 10 July 1609 Catholic princes and prince-bishops meet at Munich and form a League under Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria. It is a defensive alliance meant to counter the Protestant Union, and it lasts as a military force in the war.
- May 14, 1610Henry IV of France is assassinated while preparing war on the Habsburgs
On 14 May 1610 François Ravaillac stabs Henry IV in Paris. Historians widely believe Henry was about to launch a campaign against the Habsburgs over Jülich. His widow Marie de' Medici, as regent, reduces the promised French force.
- September 19, 1610Frederick V becomes Elector Palatine at fourteen
On 19 September 1610 the Calvinist Frederick V, aged 14, becomes Elector Palatine on his father's death and head of the Protestant Union. He later accepts the Bohemian crown in 1619 and loses it at White Mountain in 1620.
- May 1611Matthias is crowned King of Bohemia after Rudolf II is forced out
In May 1611 Matthias is crowned King of Bohemia after he forces his brother Rudolf II to cede the kingdom. Rudolf keeps only the imperial title until his death.
- January 20, 1612Rudolf II dies in Prague and Matthias becomes emperor
Rudolf II dies in Prague on 20 January 1612. Matthias is elected emperor later that year and moves the court from Prague to Vienna, leaving Bohemia without an imperial residence.
- 1615Heinrich Schütz moves to Dresden as court composer to the Elector of Saxony
Schütz, who had studied with Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice (1609-1612), took up service at the Saxon court in Dresden in 1615 and carried Italian Baroque idioms into German church music.
- 1617Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs agree the secret Treaty of Oñate
In 1617 Philip III of Spain agrees to back Ferdinand of Styria's succession in Bohemia and Hungary. In return Ferdinand gives Spain the route linking Italy to the Netherlands and rights in Alsace. Sources give March, June or July.
- June 29, 1617Ferdinand of Styria is crowned King of Bohemia
On 29 June 1617 the Catholic Archduke Ferdinand, known for his Counter-Reformation in Inner Austria, is crowned King of Bohemia as Matthias's heir. Bohemian Protestants fear for the Letter of Majesty.
- May 23, 1618Protestant nobles throw royal regents from a window at Prague Castle
On 23 May 1618 Bohemian Protestant leaders throw the Catholic regents Martinitz and Slavata and their secretary Fabricius from a window of the Bohemian Chancellery. All survive. The act starts the Bohemian Revolt and the Thirty Years' War.
- March 20, 1619Emperor Matthias dies in Vienna, leaving the Bohemian crisis to Ferdinand
Emperor Matthias dies on 20 March 1619, aged 62, without surviving children. His cousin Ferdinand of Styria, already crowned King of Bohemia, inherits the Habsburg lands as Bohemia is in open revolt.
- August 28, 1619Ferdinand II is elected Holy Roman Emperor at Frankfurt
On 28 August 1619, two days after Bohemia deposed him, Ferdinand II is elected emperor at Frankfurt unanimously, with the Palatine delegation first objecting. Frederick V himself votes for him. He is crowned on 9 September.
- c. 1620 – c. 1623The Kipper und Wipper debasement crisis hits the German lands
From about 1620 to 1623 German rulers and cities debase their coinage to pay for war. Inflation, riots and soldiers refusing coins follow, and debased money is later declared illegal and withdrawn.
- July 3, 1620 – May 14, 1621The Protestant Union declares neutrality at Ulm and is later dissolved
By the Treaty of Ulm on 3 July 1620 the Protestant Union declares neutrality and refuses to back Frederick V. Ferdinand II later orders it to disband its army, and it is formally dissolved on 14 May 1621.
- February 1623Ferdinand II transfers the Palatine electoral dignity to Maximilian of Bavaria
In February 1623 Ferdinand II strips Frederick V of his electorate and gives it to Maximilian I of Bavaria, leader of the Catholic League. Maximilian also gains the Upper Palatinate, and Catholics now hold a majority among the electors.
- May 9, 1625Christian IV of Denmark takes command of the Lower Saxon Circle and enters the war
On 9 May 1625 Christian IV, elected military commander of the Lower Saxon Circle, takes up arms against Ferdinand II as Duke of Holstein. His intervention opens the Danish phase of the war, financed by England and the Dutch.
- July 25, 1625Wallenstein is commissioned to raise an imperial army for Ferdinand II
On 25 July 1625 Albrecht von Wallenstein, made Duke of Friedland that year, receives his commission to raise an army for Ferdinand II at his own expense. It grows to tens of thousands, and sources differ on whether 30,000 or 50,000.
- April 25, 1626Wallenstein routs Mansfeld at the Dessau Bridge over the Elbe
On 25 April 1626 Wallenstein's imperial army overpowers Ernst von Mansfeld's Protestant army as it tries to cross the Elbe at Dessau, the only land link between Magdeburg and Dresden. Mansfeld loses nearly half his army.
- August 27, 1626Tilly defeats Christian IV of Denmark at Lutter
On 27 August 1626 Tilly's Catholic League army defeats Christian IV at Lutter am Barenberge. The Danes lose all their artillery and thousands of men, and many German allies desert Christian.
- 1627Schütz's Dafne is staged at Torgau, traditionally the first German opera
Heinrich Schütz set a German translation of Rinuccini's Dafne for a court wedding at Torgau in 1627. The music is lost, but the work is traditionally regarded as the first German opera.
- December 26, 1627 – June 19, 1631The War of the Mantuan Succession divides France, Spain and the emperor
Duke Vincenzo II of Mantua dies on 26 December 1627 without heirs. France and Venice back Charles of Nevers, Spain and the Empire another claimant. Imperial troops sack Mantua on 18 July 1630, and Cherasco confirms Nevers on 19 June 1631.
- 1628Ferdinand II deposes the Dukes of Mecklenburg and gives the duchy to Wallenstein
In early 1628 Ferdinand II deposes the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg and installs Wallenstein, who by 1627 has also occupied Pomerania and Jutland. From April 1628 Wallenstein is also imperial admiral of the Baltic.
- March 6, 1629Ferdinand II issues the Edict of Restitution
On 6 March 1629 Ferdinand II orders Protestants to return church lands secularised after 1555, which would change rulers in two archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics and over 100 religious houses. Protestant electors protest, and the Peace of Prague later revokes it.
- May 22, 1629Denmark makes peace with the emperor in the Treaty of Lübeck
On 22 May 1629 Wallenstein and Christian IV sign the Treaty of Lübeck, ratified by Ferdinand II on 7 June. Christian keeps his lands but gives up his claims to the Lower Saxon bishoprics and stays out of imperial affairs. Denmark declines as a power.
- August 13, 1630Ferdinand II dismisses Wallenstein at the Diet of Regensburg
On 13 August 1630 Ferdinand II decides at Regensburg to dismiss Wallenstein, whom he suspects of planning a coup. Envoys announce it in September, and Wallenstein gives his army to Tilly and retires to Jičín.
- May 20, 1631Imperial and League troops storm and burn Magdeburg
On 20 May 1631, after a two-month siege, Tilly's and Pappenheim's troops storm Magdeburg. Fire destroys about 1,700 of 1,900 buildings and some 20,000 people die. Gustavus Adolphus does not relieve it, and "Magdeburg mercy" becomes a byword.
- September 17, 1631Gustavus Adolphus and Saxony defeat Tilly at Breitenfeld
On 17 September 1631 the Swedish-Saxon army defeats Tilly's Imperial-League army near Leipzig. The Saxons break early but the Swedes counterattack. It is the Protestants' first major victory and opens southern Germany to Sweden.
- 1632Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein after Tilly's defeats
In 1632, after Gustavus Adolphus's victories at Breitenfeld and the Lech and Tilly's death, Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein. He raises a new army within weeks and drives the Saxons from Bohemia.
- April 15, 1632Gustavus Adolphus crosses the Lech at Rain and Tilly is mortally wounded
On 15 April 1632 Gustavus Adolphus defeats the Catholic League at Rain on the Lech. Tilly's thigh is shattered and he dies two weeks later. Maximilian of Bavaria retreats, leaving Bavaria open to Swedish invasion.
- May 17, 1632Gustavus Adolphus enters Munich
On 17 May 1632 Gustavus Adolphus's army enters Munich, capital of Maximilian of Bavaria, the leader of the Catholic League. Bavaria is widely pillaged. The Swedes then advance on Nuremberg.
- September 3, 1632Wallenstein repels Gustavus Adolphus's assault at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg
On 3 September 1632 Gustavus Adolphus attacks Wallenstein's entrenched camp at the Alte Veste, near Nuremberg, and is repulsed with about 2,500 casualties. Short of supplies, he withdraws south on 19 September.
- April 1633Sweden and the German circles form the Heilbronn League
In April 1633 Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna forms the Heilbronn League with the Swabian, Franconian and Rhenish circles to continue the war after Gustavus Adolphus's death. Sources give 23 or 27 April. Members pay under a third of what they pledge.
- January 24, 1634 – February 18, 1634Ferdinand II removes Wallenstein from command and declares him a traitor
On 24 January 1634 Ferdinand II signs a secret patent removing Wallenstein, and on 18 February an open patent charges him with treason and orders him brought to Vienna "dead or alive". Wallenstein had been negotiating secretly with Saxony, Sweden and France.
- February 25, 1634Wallenstein is murdered at Eger
On the night of 25 February 1634, Scottish and Irish officers in Wallenstein's own force kill his loyal officers at a feast at Cheb Castle. Captain Walter Devereux then spears Wallenstein. Ferdinand II rewards the assassins.
- September 5, 1634 – September 6, 1634Imperial and Spanish forces crush the Swedes at Nördlingen
On 5–6 September 1634 an Imperial-Spanish army routs the Swedish-German army of Horn and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar at Nördlingen. Some 12,000 to 14,000 are killed or captured. Swedish power in southern Germany ends, and France soon enters the war.
- May 30, 1635Ferdinand II and Saxony make the Peace of Prague
On 30 May 1635 (Old Style) Ferdinand II and Saxony sign the Peace of Prague. It effectively revokes the Edict of Restitution, sets 1627 as the cutoff for church property and bans alliances in the Empire. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar fights on for France.
- October 4, 1636Swedes defeat the Imperial-Saxon army at Wittstock
On 4 October 1636 Banér and Leslie rout Hatzfeldt's Imperial and Saxon army, which loses all its artillery. It restores Swedish prestige, but Brandenburg allies with the emperor.
- February 15, 1637Ferdinand III succeeds his father as emperor
Elected King of the Romans at Regensburg on 22 December 1636, Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor when Ferdinand II dies on 15 February 1637. He rules through to Westphalia.
- December 1641Hamburg preliminaries open the road to the Westphalian congress
In December 1641 Sweden, France and the empire negotiate a preliminary peace at Hamburg, which sets the way for the talks at Münster and Osnabrück. The page gives no day.
- November 2, 1642Torstensson defeats the Imperial army at Breitenfeld
On 2 November 1642 Torstensson's Swedes defeat Archduke Leopold Wilhelm and Piccolomini, who lose all 46 guns. Sweden gains Leipzig, but Saxony still does not make peace.
- c. 1644 – 1648Peace congress meets at Münster and Osnabrück
From about 1644 delegations meet in Münster and Osnabrück, Catholic and Lutheran cities, with no exact opening date. 109 delegations take part and talks run until 1648 while fighting continues.
- March 6, 1645Swedes destroy the Imperial army at Jankau
On 6 March 1645 Torstensson defeats Hatzfeldt, who is captured, at Jankau in Bohemia. Hunger and exhaustion stop the Swedes from exploiting it, and they leave Bohemia by February 1646.
- August 3, 1645Condé and Turenne win at Nördlingen, at heavy cost
On 3 August 1645 near Alerheim, Enghien and Turenne defeat the Bavarians under Mercy, who is killed. French losses are heavy and the strategic gain is small, and Bavaria gets only a breathing space.
- March 14, 1647France, Sweden and Bavaria sign the Truce of Ulm
On 14 March 1647 Elector Maximilian I of Bavaria accepts a truce with France and Sweden and drops his alliance with Ferdinand III. He breaks it on 14 September, returning to the emperor.
- May 17, 1648Franco-Swedish army wins at Zusmarshausen
On 17 May 1648 Wrangel and Turenne defeat the Imperial-Bavarian army, killing Melander. Montecuccoli's rearguard saves it from destruction. It is the last major battle on German soil, and Bavaria is plundered.
- October 24, 1648Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War
On 24 October 1648 treaties are signed at Osnabrück (emperor and Sweden) and Münster (emperor and France). The war killed an estimated 4.5 to 8 million people. Historians now doubt that the texts founded modern state sovereignty.
- October 24, 1648The Empire recognises Swiss independence
On 24 October 1648 Westphalia grants the Swiss Confederation legal independence from the Holy Roman Empire. Basel's mayor Johann Rudolf Wettstein, accredited in 1647, had lobbied for it at Münster.
- October 24, 1648Westphalia restores the Lower Palatinate and creates an eighth electorate
Charles I Louis regains the Lower Palatinate and a new, eighth electoral vote, while Bavaria keeps the Upper Palatinate and the Palatinate's former electoral vote, ending the dispute that began in 1623.
- October 24, 1648Westphalia recognises Calvinism and fixes 1624 as the religious norm
The treaties give Calvinism legal standing beside Catholicism and Lutheranism, take 1 January 1624 as the normative year for each state's religion, and end rulers' power to impose their faith on subjects. Half of the imperial court's judges must be Protestant.
- September 12, 1683Polish-Imperial army lifts the Ottoman siege of Vienna
A relief army led by Jan III Sobieski of Poland and Emperor Leopold I's forces routs Kara Mustafa's Ottoman army outside Vienna. It is the last great Ottoman threat to central Europe and opens the Habsburg reconquest of Hungary.
- January 26, 1699Treaty of Karlowitz: Ottomans cede most of Hungary to the Habsburgs
After the Habsburg-Ottoman war of 1683-97 and the Ottoman defeat at Zenta, the Ottomans surrender Hungary (except the Banat of Temesvár), Slavonia and Transylvania to Emperor Leopold I.
- 1723 – 1750Bach becomes Thomaskantor in Leipzig
Johann Sebastian Bach succeeded Johann Kuhnau as cantor of the St Thomas School, directing music for Leipzig's main churches until his death in 1750. There he wrote most of his church cantatas and the Passions.
- July 27, 1733Bach presents the Kyrie and Gloria of the future B minor Mass to the Saxon Elector
On 27 July 1733 Johann Sebastian Bach petitioned the new Elector Augustus III in Dresden, sending a Kyrie and Gloria. He expanded them into the complete Mass in B minor in 1748-49.
- July 28, 1750Death of Johann Sebastian Bach in Leipzig
Bach died on 28 July 1750 after unsuccessful eye surgery, leaving The Art of Fugue unfinished. His death is the conventional end of the Baroque period in music.
- August 6, 1806Francis II dissolves the Holy Roman Empire
After sixteen German states formed the French-aligned Confederation of the Rhine in July, Emperor Francis II abdicated the imperial title, ending the Holy Roman Empire.