Thirty Years' War

The general European war of 1618–1648, from the Bohemian Revolt and the Defenestration of Prague to the Peace of Westphalia.

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1617
Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs agree the secret Treaty of Oñate
In 1617 Philip III of Spain agrees to back Ferdinand of Styria's succession in Bohemia and Hungary. In return Ferdinand gives Spain the route linking Italy to the Netherlands and rights in Alsace. Sources give March, June or July.
Spain Austrian Empire Holy Roman Empire Politics Bohemia Thirty Years' War
June 29, 1617
Ferdinand of Styria is crowned King of Bohemia
On 29 June 1617 the Catholic Archduke Ferdinand, known for his Counter-Reformation in Inner Austria, is crowned King of Bohemia as Matthias's heir. Bohemian Protestants fear for the Letter of Majesty.
Bohemia Austrian Empire Counter-Reformation Holy Roman Empire Politics Thirty Years' War
May 23, 1618
Protestant nobles throw royal regents from a window at Prague Castle
On 23 May 1618 Bohemian Protestant leaders throw the Catholic regents Martinitz and Slavata and their secretary Fabricius from a window of the Bohemian Chancellery. All survive. The act starts the Bohemian Revolt and the Thirty Years' War.
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Holy Roman Empire Protestant Reformation Politics
August 29, 1618 – May 13, 1619
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt is arrested and later beheaded in the Dutch Republic
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, chief architect of the Twelve Years' Truce and protector of the Remonstrants, is imprisoned on 29 August 1618 and beheaded on 13 May 1619, four days after the Synod of Dort closes. Hugo Grotius gets a life sentence.
Netherlands Dutch Revolt Calvinism Politics Religious persecution Thirty Years' War
1619
A Bohemian army under Count Thurn reaches the walls of Vienna
In 1619 the Bohemian rebel army, led by Count Thurn, advances into Austria and reaches the walls of Vienna, threatening the new ruler Ferdinand at his own capital. The Bohemian estates also seek allies in Hungary and the Empire.
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Austrian Empire War
March 20, 1619
Emperor Matthias dies in Vienna, leaving the Bohemian crisis to Ferdinand
Emperor Matthias dies on 20 March 1619, aged 62, without surviving children. His cousin Ferdinand of Styria, already crowned King of Bohemia, inherits the Habsburg lands as Bohemia is in open revolt.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Austrian Empire Bohemia Politics
August 1619 – September 1619
Gábor Bethlen of Transylvania invades Royal Hungary and joins the revolt
In August 1619 the Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, Gábor Bethlen, invades Habsburg-ruled Royal Hungary and in September takes Košice, where Protestant supporters proclaim him leader of Hungary and protector of Protestants.
Thirty Years' War Hungary Calvinism Ottoman Empire War
August 26, 1619
Bohemian estates depose Ferdinand II and elect Frederick V as king
In August 1619 the Bohemian estates depose Ferdinand II and on 26 August elect the Calvinist Frederick V of the Palatinate as king. Sources date the deposition 19 or 26 August. Frederick accepts on 28 September.
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Electoral Palatinate Calvinism Politics
August 28, 1619
Ferdinand II is elected Holy Roman Emperor at Frankfurt
On 28 August 1619, two days after Bohemia deposed him, Ferdinand II is elected emperor at Frankfurt unanimously, with the Palatine delegation first objecting. Frederick V himself votes for him. He is crowned on 9 September.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Austrian Empire Politics
November 4, 1619
Frederick V is crowned King of Bohemia in Prague
On 4 November 1619 the Calvinist Elector Palatine is crowned Frederick I of Bohemia. His reign ends a year later at White Mountain, which earns him the nickname "Winter King".
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Electoral Palatinate Calvinism Politics
c. 1620 – c. 1623
The Kipper und Wipper debasement crisis hits the German lands
From about 1620 to 1623 German rulers and cities debase their coinage to pay for war. Inflation, riots and soldiers refusing coins follow, and debased money is later declared illegal and withdrawn.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Politics
July 3, 1620 – May 14, 1621
The Protestant Union declares neutrality at Ulm and is later dissolved
By the Treaty of Ulm on 3 July 1620 the Protestant Union declares neutrality and refuses to back Frederick V. Ferdinand II later orders it to disband its army, and it is formally dissolved on 14 May 1621.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Electoral Palatinate Politics
August 1620
Gábor Bethlen is elected King of Hungary at Banská Bystrica
In August 1620 the Diet at Banská Bystrica elects the Calvinist Gábor Bethlen King of Hungary, in defiance of Ferdinand II. Sources give 20 or 25 August. He never has himself crowned and renounces the title in 1621.
Thirty Years' War Hungary Calvinism Politics
August 1620
Spain's Army of Flanders invades the Lower Palatinate
In late August 1620 Ambrogio Spinola's Spanish Army of Flanders enters the Lower Palatinate from the Netherlands and takes Kreuznach and Oppenheim. This opens the Palatinate campaign, which lasts until August 1623.
Thirty Years' War Spain Electoral Palatinate War
November 8, 1620
Imperial and League forces crush the Bohemian army at White Mountain
On 8 November 1620 Tilly and Bucquoy rout Christian of Anhalt's Bohemian army near Prague in about an hour. Frederick V flees, and the Bohemian Revolt collapses.
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Electoral Palatinate Counter-Reformation War
June 21, 1621
Twenty-seven Bohemian rebel leaders are executed in Prague's Old Town Square
On 21 June 1621 twenty-seven leaders of the Bohemian Revolt, nobles, knights and burghers, are executed in Old Town Square. Twelve heads hang from the Old Town Bridge Tower until the Saxon invasion of 1631.
Thirty Years' War Bohemia Counter-Reformation Religious persecution Politics
December 31, 1621
Peace of Nikolsburg: Bethlen renounces the Hungarian crown for religious guarantees
On 31 December 1621 Gábor Bethlen gives up the title of King of Hungary. He gets religious freedom for Hungarian Protestants, the title of Imperial Prince, seven counties, three fortresses and a Silesian duchy.
Thirty Years' War Hungary Calvinism Religious toleration Politics
April 27, 1622 – June 1622
Tilly defeats the Protestant armies in the Palatinate at Wimpfen and Höchst
In spring 1622 Tilly's Catholic League army invades the Palatinate and beats Protestant forces at Mingolsheim (27 April), Wimpfen (early May, sources give 6 or 8) and Höchst (June).
Thirty Years' War Electoral Palatinate War
September 19, 1622
Heidelberg falls to Tilly after an eleven-week siege
On 19 September 1622 Tilly takes Heidelberg, capital of the Electoral Palatinate, after eleven weeks. Mannheim falls soon after, and Frederick V, already in exile, flees to the United Provinces.
Thirty Years' War Electoral Palatinate Calvinism War
February 1623
Ferdinand II transfers the Palatine electoral dignity to Maximilian of Bavaria
In February 1623 Ferdinand II strips Frederick V of his electorate and gives it to Maximilian I of Bavaria, leader of the Catholic League. Maximilian also gains the Upper Palatinate, and Catholics now hold a majority among the electors.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Electoral Palatinate Counter-Reformation Politics
August 6, 1623
Tilly defeats Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn and ends the Palatine phase
On 6 August 1623 Tilly destroys Christian of Brunswick's Protestant army at Stadtlohn near the Dutch border. Frederick V signs an armistice, which ends the Bohemian-Palatine phase of the war.
Thirty Years' War Electoral Palatinate War
August 12, 1624
Cardinal Richelieu becomes chief minister of Louis XIII
Richelieu centralised royal power by curbing noble privileges, crushing Huguenot political power (La Rochelle, 1627-28) and using intendants, while steering France against the Habsburgs in the Thirty Years' War.
French monarchy Politics Huguenots Thirty Years' War
May 9, 1625
Christian IV of Denmark takes command of the Lower Saxon Circle and enters the war
On 9 May 1625 Christian IV, elected military commander of the Lower Saxon Circle, takes up arms against Ferdinand II as Duke of Holstein. His intervention opens the Danish phase of the war, financed by England and the Dutch.
Thirty Years' War Denmark Holy Roman Empire Protestant Reformation War
July 25, 1625
Wallenstein is commissioned to raise an imperial army for Ferdinand II
On 25 July 1625 Albrecht von Wallenstein, made Duke of Friedland that year, receives his commission to raise an army for Ferdinand II at his own expense. It grows to tens of thousands, and sources differ on whether 30,000 or 50,000.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Bohemia War
December 9, 1625
England, the Dutch Republic and Denmark ally at The Hague against the emperor
On 9 December 1625 England, the Dutch Republic and Denmark-Norway sign the Treaty of The Hague, under which the English and Dutch are to fund Christian IV. France, Sweden and Venice do not join, and the funds fall short.
Thirty Years' War Denmark Netherlands United Kingdom Politics
April 25, 1626
Wallenstein routs Mansfeld at the Dessau Bridge over the Elbe
On 25 April 1626 Wallenstein's imperial army overpowers Ernst von Mansfeld's Protestant army as it tries to cross the Elbe at Dessau, the only land link between Magdeburg and Dresden. Mansfeld loses nearly half his army.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire War
August 27, 1626
Tilly defeats Christian IV of Denmark at Lutter
On 27 August 1626 Tilly's Catholic League army defeats Christian IV at Lutter am Barenberge. The Danes lose all their artillery and thousands of men, and many German allies desert Christian.
Thirty Years' War Denmark Holy Roman Empire War
1627
Ferdinand II issues the Renewed Land Ordinance, making Catholicism Bohemia's only religion
In 1627 Ferdinand II's Renewed Land Ordinance makes the Bohemian lands hereditary Habsburg possessions, strips the Estates of their powers and allows only Catholicism, except for Jews. It stays in force, modified, until 1848.
Bohemia Thirty Years' War Austrian Empire Counter-Reformation Religious persecution
December 26, 1627 – June 19, 1631
The War of the Mantuan Succession divides France, Spain and the emperor
Duke Vincenzo II of Mantua dies on 26 December 1627 without heirs. France and Venice back Charles of Nevers, Spain and the Empire another claimant. Imperial troops sack Mantua on 18 July 1630, and Cherasco confirms Nevers on 19 June 1631.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Spain French monarchy War
1628
Ferdinand II deposes the Dukes of Mecklenburg and gives the duchy to Wallenstein
In early 1628 Ferdinand II deposes the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg and installs Wallenstein, who by 1627 has also occupied Pomerania and Jutland. From April 1628 Wallenstein is also imperial admiral of the Baltic.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Politics
May 13, 1628 – August 4, 1628
Stralsund resists Wallenstein with Danish and Swedish help
From 13 May to 4 August 1628 Stralsund holds out against Wallenstein. On 23 June it signs a twenty-year alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, who sends troops. It is Wallenstein's first setback and Sweden's foothold in the Empire.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Sweden Denmark War
March 6, 1629
Ferdinand II issues the Edict of Restitution
On 6 March 1629 Ferdinand II orders Protestants to return church lands secularised after 1555, which would change rulers in two archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics and over 100 religious houses. Protestant electors protest, and the Peace of Prague later revokes it.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Counter-Reformation Protestant Reformation Politics
May 22, 1629
Denmark makes peace with the emperor in the Treaty of Lübeck
On 22 May 1629 Wallenstein and Christian IV sign the Treaty of Lübeck, ratified by Ferdinand II on 7 June. Christian keeps his lands but gives up his claims to the Lower Saxon bishoprics and stays out of imperial affairs. Denmark declines as a power.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Denmark Holy Roman Empire Politics
September 26, 1629
Sweden and Poland sign the Truce of Altmark, freeing Gustavus Adolphus for Germany
On 26 September 1629, with French mediation, Sweden and Poland-Lithuania agree a six-year truce. Sweden keeps Livonia and the revenue from Polish ports, which funds its entry into the Thirty Years' War in 1630.
Thirty Years' War Sweden French monarchy Politics War
July 6, 1630
Gustavus Adolphus lands on Usedom and brings Sweden into the war
On 6 July 1630 (26 June Old Style) Gustavus Adolphus lands his army on Usedom, off Pomerania, and Sweden enters the war. Sources differ on the force, from about 4,000 to 13,000 men. He occupies Pomerania under the Treaty of Stettin.
Gustavus Adolphus Sweden Thirty Years' War Protestant Reformation War
August 13, 1630
Ferdinand II dismisses Wallenstein at the Diet of Regensburg
On 13 August 1630 Ferdinand II decides at Regensburg to dismiss Wallenstein, whom he suspects of planning a coup. Envoys announce it in September, and Wallenstein gives his army to Tilly and retires to Jičín.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Politics
January 23, 1631
France agrees to finance Sweden in the Treaty of Bärwalde
On 23 January 1631 Richelieu's France agrees to pay Sweden 400,000 Reichstaler a year, and Sweden to keep an army of 36,000 in Germany. Gustavus Adolphus must respect Catholic worship and Bavaria's neutrality. Richelieu fights the Habsburgs by proxy.
Sweden French monarchy Gustavus Adolphus Thirty Years' War Politics
May 20, 1631
Imperial and League troops storm and burn Magdeburg
On 20 May 1631, after a two-month siege, Tilly's and Pappenheim's troops storm Magdeburg. Fire destroys about 1,700 of 1,900 buildings and some 20,000 people die. Gustavus Adolphus does not relieve it, and "Magdeburg mercy" becomes a byword.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Protestant Reformation Religious persecution War
September 17, 1631
Gustavus Adolphus and Saxony defeat Tilly at Breitenfeld
On 17 September 1631 the Swedish-Saxon army defeats Tilly's Imperial-League army near Leipzig. The Saxons break early but the Swedes counterattack. It is the Protestants' first major victory and opens southern Germany to Sweden.
Gustavus Adolphus Sweden Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire War
1632
Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein after Tilly's defeats
In 1632, after Gustavus Adolphus's victories at Breitenfeld and the Lech and Tilly's death, Ferdinand II recalls Wallenstein. He raises a new army within weeks and drives the Saxons from Bohemia.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Bohemia War
April 15, 1632
Gustavus Adolphus crosses the Lech at Rain and Tilly is mortally wounded
On 15 April 1632 Gustavus Adolphus defeats the Catholic League at Rain on the Lech. Tilly's thigh is shattered and he dies two weeks later. Maximilian of Bavaria retreats, leaving Bavaria open to Swedish invasion.
Gustavus Adolphus Sweden Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire War
May 17, 1632
Gustavus Adolphus enters Munich
On 17 May 1632 Gustavus Adolphus's army enters Munich, capital of Maximilian of Bavaria, the leader of the Catholic League. Bavaria is widely pillaged. The Swedes then advance on Nuremberg.
Gustavus Adolphus Sweden Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire War
September 3, 1632
Wallenstein repels Gustavus Adolphus's assault at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg
On 3 September 1632 Gustavus Adolphus attacks Wallenstein's entrenched camp at the Alte Veste, near Nuremberg, and is repulsed with about 2,500 casualties. Short of supplies, he withdraws south on 19 September.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Gustavus Adolphus Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire War
November 16, 1632
Gustavus Adolphus is killed at the Battle of Lützen
On 16 November 1632 (6 November Old Style) Gustavus Adolphus is killed leading a cavalry charge at Lützen. The Swedes hold the field against Wallenstein, who withdraws to Bohemia, but Sweden loses its king and the war goes on.
Gustavus Adolphus Albrecht von Wallenstein Sweden Thirty Years' War War
April 1633
Sweden and the German circles form the Heilbronn League
In April 1633 Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna forms the Heilbronn League with the Swabian, Franconian and Rhenish circles to continue the war after Gustavus Adolphus's death. Sources give 23 or 27 April. Members pay under a third of what they pledge.
Sweden Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Politics
January 24, 1634 – February 18, 1634
Ferdinand II removes Wallenstein from command and declares him a traitor
On 24 January 1634 Ferdinand II signs a secret patent removing Wallenstein, and on 18 February an open patent charges him with treason and orders him brought to Vienna "dead or alive". Wallenstein had been negotiating secretly with Saxony, Sweden and France.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Bohemia Politics
February 25, 1634
Wallenstein is murdered at Eger
On the night of 25 February 1634, Scottish and Irish officers in Wallenstein's own force kill his loyal officers at a feast at Cheb Castle. Captain Walter Devereux then spears Wallenstein. Ferdinand II rewards the assassins.
Albrecht von Wallenstein Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Bohemia
September 5, 1634 – September 6, 1634
Imperial and Spanish forces crush the Swedes at Nördlingen
On 5–6 September 1634 an Imperial-Spanish army routs the Swedish-German army of Horn and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar at Nördlingen. Some 12,000 to 14,000 are killed or captured. Swedish power in southern Germany ends, and France soon enters the war.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Spain Holy Roman Empire War
April 30, 1635
France and Sweden sign the Treaty of Compiègne
Richelieu and Oxenstierna ally France and Sweden against the Habsburgs, renewing Bärwalde's subsidies, with no separate peace. The date is Old Style (30 April); Sweden delays ratification until France declares war on Spain.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Sweden Politics
May 19, 1635
France declares war on Spain
On 19 May 1635 Louis XIII declares war on Spain and invades the Spanish Netherlands, openly entering the Thirty Years' War. It begins the Franco-Spanish War, which outlasts Westphalia and ends in 1659.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Spain War
May 30, 1635
Ferdinand II and Saxony make the Peace of Prague
On 30 May 1635 (Old Style) Ferdinand II and Saxony sign the Peace of Prague. It effectively revokes the Edict of Restitution, sets 1627 as the cutoff for church property and bans alliances in the Empire. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar fights on for France.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Protestant Reformation Religious toleration Politics
August 1636
Spanish army reaches Corbie, threatening Paris
In August 1636 a Spanish incursion from the Netherlands under the Cardinal-Infante takes Corbie in Picardy. Supply problems force it to retreat, and the attempt is not repeated.
Thirty Years' War Spain French monarchy War
October 4, 1636
Swedes defeat the Imperial-Saxon army at Wittstock
On 4 October 1636 Banér and Leslie rout Hatzfeldt's Imperial and Saxon army, which loses all its artillery. It restores Swedish prestige, but Brandenburg allies with the emperor.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Holy Roman Empire War
February 15, 1637
Ferdinand III succeeds his father as emperor
Elected King of the Romans at Regensburg on 22 December 1636, Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor when Ferdinand II dies on 15 February 1637. He rules through to Westphalia.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Austrian Empire Politics
October 21, 1639
Dutch fleet destroys a Spanish armada at the Downs
On 21 October 1639 Maarten Tromp attacks Oquendo's fleet, anchored in neutral English waters, with fireships. Spain loses many ships and its hope of contesting Dutch sea power in the Channel.
Thirty Years' War Dutch Revolt Netherlands Spain War
1640
Corpus de Sang: Catalan revolt breaks out in Barcelona
Riots by harvesters and townsfolk against billeted Spanish troops and the crown's demands begin the Reapers' War. Sources date it to Corpus Christi in May or 7 June 1640, so only the year is given.
Thirty Years' War Catalonia Spain Politics War
December 1, 1640
Portugal revolts against Spain and acclaims John IV
On 1 December 1640 nobles and wealthy townsmen revolt and acclaim John IV, Duke of Braganza, ending 60 years of Habsburg rule. Spain accepts Portugal's sovereignty only in 1668.
Portugal Spain Politics War Catalonia Thirty Years' War
January 17, 1641
Catalonia proclaims a republic under French protection
On 17 January 1641 the Junta de Braços accepts a Catalan Republic under French protection. After defeat at Martorell on 23 January, Pau Claris recognises Louis XIII as Count of Barcelona.
Thirty Years' War Catalonia French monarchy Spain Politics
January 26, 1641
Franco-Catalan forces defeat Spain at Montjuïc
On 26 January 1641 Franco-Catalan forces win the Battle of Montjuïc outside Barcelona, securing the city for the rebels. Barcelona falls to Spain only in 1652.
Thirty Years' War Catalonia Spain French monarchy War
December 1641
Hamburg preliminaries open the road to the Westphalian congress
In December 1641 Sweden, France and the empire negotiate a preliminary peace at Hamburg, which sets the way for the talks at Münster and Osnabrück. The page gives no day.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Sweden French monarchy Politics
November 2, 1642
Torstensson defeats the Imperial army at Breitenfeld
On 2 November 1642 Torstensson's Swedes defeat Archduke Leopold Wilhelm and Piccolomini, who lose all 46 guns. Sweden gains Leipzig, but Saxony still does not make peace.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Holy Roman Empire War
December 4, 1642
Cardinal Richelieu dies and Mazarin takes over
Richelieu dies in Paris on 4 December 1642, aged 57, having named Mazarin as successor. Mazarin's authority grows after Louis XIII's death on 14 May 1643, when Anne of Austria confirms him.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Politics
January 1643
Philip IV dismisses the Count-Duke of Olivares
In January 1643, after the Catalan and Portuguese revolts and a court intrigue, Philip IV dismisses his favourite Olivares. He retires and dies at Toro in 1645.
Thirty Years' War Spain Politics
May 19, 1643
Condé defeats the Spanish at Rocroi
On 19 May 1643 the 21-year-old Duke of Enghien, later the Great Condé, defeats Melo's army at Rocroi. It ends the Spanish tercios' aura of invincibility. Estimates of Spanish losses vary widely.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Spain War
c. 1644 – 1648
Peace congress meets at Münster and Osnabrück
From about 1644 delegations meet in Münster and Osnabrück, Catholic and Lutheran cities, with no exact opening date. 109 delegations take part and talks run until 1648 while fighting continues.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire French monarchy Sweden Politics
March 6, 1645
Swedes destroy the Imperial army at Jankau
On 6 March 1645 Torstensson defeats Hatzfeldt, who is captured, at Jankau in Bohemia. Hunger and exhaustion stop the Swedes from exploiting it, and they leave Bohemia by February 1646.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Holy Roman Empire Bohemia War
August 3, 1645
Condé and Turenne win at Nördlingen, at heavy cost
On 3 August 1645 near Alerheim, Enghien and Turenne defeat the Bavarians under Mercy, who is killed. French losses are heavy and the strategic gain is small, and Bavaria gets only a breathing space.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Holy Roman Empire War
August 13, 1645
Denmark yields territory to Sweden at Brömsebro
On 13 August 1645 Denmark–Norway cedes Gotland, Ösel, Jämtland, Härjedalen and (for 30 years) Halland. It ends the Torstenson War and confirms Sweden's dominance in the Baltic.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Denmark Politics War
March 14, 1647
France, Sweden and Bavaria sign the Truce of Ulm
On 14 March 1647 Elector Maximilian I of Bavaria accepts a truce with France and Sweden and drops his alliance with Ferdinand III. He breaks it on 14 September, returning to the emperor.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire French monarchy Sweden Politics
1648
Pope Innocent X declares the Westphalian settlement void
Innocent X condemns the peace as "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane" and without effect for all time. The page gives no date for the brief, so only the year is shown.
Thirty Years' War Papacy Counter-Reformation Politics
1648 – 1653
The Fronde: revolts of Parlement and nobles against the crown
Civil wars during Louis XIV's minority pitted the Parlement of Paris and great nobles against the regency and Mazarin. The crown won, and the young Louis resolved to concentrate power in the monarchy.
French monarchy Politics War Catalonia Thirty Years' War
January 30, 1648
Spain recognises the Dutch Republic at Münster
On 30 January 1648 Philip IV and the States General sign a separate peace at Münster, ending the Eighty Years' War. Spain recognises Dutch sovereignty; oaths are sworn on 15 May. It is not part of the Westphalian treaties.
Thirty Years' War Dutch Revolt Netherlands Spain Politics
May 17, 1648
Franco-Swedish army wins at Zusmarshausen
On 17 May 1648 Wrangel and Turenne defeat the Imperial-Bavarian army, killing Melander. Montecuccoli's rearguard saves it from destruction. It is the last major battle on German soil, and Bavaria is plundered.
Thirty Years' War Sweden French monarchy Holy Roman Empire War
August 20, 1648
Condé crushes the Spanish at Lens
On 20 August 1648 Condé defeats Archduke Leopold Wilhelm's Spanish army, which loses about half its men. Often called the last major battle of the war, it adds pressure for peace, though the Fronde limits France.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Spain War
October 24, 1648
Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War
On 24 October 1648 treaties are signed at Osnabrück (emperor and Sweden) and Münster (emperor and France). The war killed an estimated 4.5 to 8 million people. Historians now doubt that the texts founded modern state sovereignty.
Thirty Years' War Holy Roman Empire Politics War
October 24, 1648
The Empire recognises Swiss independence
On 24 October 1648 Westphalia grants the Swiss Confederation legal independence from the Holy Roman Empire. Basel's mayor Johann Rudolf Wettstein, accredited in 1647, had lobbied for it at Münster.
Thirty Years' War Swiss Confederation Holy Roman Empire Politics
October 24, 1648
Brandenburg-Prussia gains Farther Pomerania and four bishoprics
Westphalia gives Brandenburg-Prussia Farther Pomerania and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin and Minden. The border with Swedish Pomerania is left open.
Thirty Years' War Prussia Politics
October 24, 1648
France gains Alsatian cities and confirms Metz, Toul and Verdun
At Münster France keeps Metz, Toul and Verdun, and receives the Alsatian Décapole cities (not Strasbourg or Mulhouse) and Pinerolo. The Franco-Spanish war continues.
Thirty Years' War French monarchy Politics
October 24, 1648
Westphalia restores the Lower Palatinate and creates an eighth electorate
Charles I Louis regains the Lower Palatinate and a new, eighth electoral vote, while Bavaria keeps the Upper Palatinate and the Palatinate's former electoral vote, ending the dispute that began in 1623.
Thirty Years' War Electoral Palatinate Holy Roman Empire Politics
October 24, 1648
Westphalia recognises Calvinism and fixes 1624 as the religious norm
The treaties give Calvinism legal standing beside Catholicism and Lutheranism, take 1 January 1624 as the normative year for each state's religion, and end rulers' power to impose their faith on subjects. Half of the imperial court's judges must be Protestant.
Thirty Years' War Calvinism Protestant Reformation Religious toleration Holy Roman Empire
October 24, 1648
Sweden gains Western Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen and Verden
At Osnabrück Sweden receives an indemnity of five million thalers, Western Pomerania, Wismar and the prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden as hereditary fiefs, with seats in the Imperial Diet.
Thirty Years' War Sweden Politics