The Bible
The Bible as a text: its translations, printed editions and the scholarship on it, from antiquity to the present day (not the churches or movements that use it).
Category: Culture
- c. 622 BCEKing Josiah's reform after a 'book of the law' is found in the Temple
In his 18th year, c. 622 BCE, Josiah of Judah centralizes worship in Jerusalem after a scroll is found in the Temple. Many scholars link it to an early form of Deuteronomy; some see the account as largely legendary.
- c. 587 BCEBabylon destroys Jerusalem and exiles Judah's elite
Nebuchadnezzar II burns Jerusalem and its Temple in 587 or 586 BCE and deports Judeans to Babylonia. In exile, scribes gather and reshape the traditions that would form the Hebrew Bible.
- c. 457 BCEEzra brings the Torah to Jerusalem
According to tradition, the priest and scribe Ezra leads a return from Babylon c. 457 BCE and reintroduces the Torah in Jerusalem. Many scholars place the Torah's final shaping and authority in this Persian period.
- c. 250 BCE – 132 BCEThe Hebrew scriptures are translated into Greek: the Septuagint
Jews in Ptolemaic Egypt, probably around Alexandria, translate the Torah into Greek in the 3rd century BCE and the other books by 132 BCE. Some copies include books later called deuterocanonical.
- c. 48 – c. 62Paul writes the earliest surviving Christian texts
From c. 48 CE the apostle Paul writes letters to early Christian communities, among them Galatians, 1 Thessalonians and Romans. They are the oldest writings of the New Testament.
- c. 70The Gospel of Mark, the earliest gospel, is written
Around 70 CE, near the First Jewish–Roman War and the destruction of the Temple, the Gospel of Mark is composed. Most scholars see it as the first gospel; its place of writing is debated.
- c. 140Marcion proposes the first Christian canon
Around 140 CE the teacher Marcion offers a canon of ten Pauline letters and an edited Gospel of Luke, rejecting the Hebrew scriptures. His list is often seen as prompting the church to define its own.
- c. 240Origen compiles the Hexapla
By about 240 CE the scholar Origen of Alexandria sets out the Hebrew Bible in six parallel columns: Hebrew, its Greek transliteration and four Greek versions, including the Septuagint. Only fragments survive.
- 331Constantine orders fifty Bibles for Constantinople
In 331 the emperor Constantine commissions Eusebius of Caesarea to supply fifty Bibles for the churches of his new capital, Constantinople, an early sign of large-scale Bible production.
- c. 350Codex Sinaiticus, an early complete Greek Bible, is copied
In the mid-4th century (c. 325–360) a Greek Old and New Testament is copied in one codex. Codex Sinaiticus includes deuterocanonical books such as Tobit, Judith and Sirach, plus the Epistle of Barnabas.
- 367Athanasius lists the 27 books of the New Testament
In his Easter letter of 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria names the same 27 New Testament books Christians use today, the earliest known list of exactly that set.
- c. 370The Bible is translated into Gothic
In the 4th century the Arian bishop Wulfila, probably with a team, translates much of the Bible into Gothic, in the Balkans. The best-known manuscript is the Codex Argenteus, now in Uppsala.
- 382 – 405Jerome translates the Bible into Latin: the Vulgate
Commissioned by Pope Damasus I in 382, Jerome revises the Latin Gospels and later translates the Old Testament from Hebrew, finishing by 405 in Bethlehem. He doubted the status of the deuterocanonical books.
- 393The Synod of Hippo accepts a Christian canon
In 393 a North African church synod at Hippo Regius, in the circle of Augustine, probably becomes the first council to accept the Catholic canon of Old and New Testament books, deuterocanonical books included.
- 397The Council of Carthage confirms the canon of Scripture
In 397 the Council of Carthage accepts a summary of the Synod of Hippo's decisions and its list of biblical books. A further council in 419 repeats it, shaping the canon of Latin Christianity.
- c. 405 – c. 434Mesrop Mashtots and the Armenian Bible
Around 405 Mesrop Mashtots creates the Armenian alphabet. A first Bible translation from Syriac follows (c. 411), then a revision from Greek completed c. 434.
- c. 700Codex Amiatinus, the oldest complete Vulgate, is made in Northumbria
Ordered by Abbot Ceolfrith in 692 and made at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow around 700, the Codex Amiatinus is the oldest complete Vulgate Bible. It leaves for Italy in 716 and is now in Florence.
- 799 – 801Alcuin revises the Vulgate text at Tours
Around 799–801 Alcuin of York, abbot of Marmoutier at Tours under Charlemagne, has Bibles prepared from a corrected Vulgate. The aim is to recover Jerome's text, though his changes were probably modest.
- 863Cyril and Methodius begin translating the Gospels into Slavonic
Arriving in Great Moravia in 863, the brothers Cyril and Methodius translate the Gospels and liturgical books into Old Church Slavonic, using the Glagolitic script they devised.
- c. 920The Aleppo Codex, a model Masoretic Hebrew Bible, is written in Tiberias
Around 920 the scribe Shlomo ben Buya'a copies the consonants of the Hebrew Bible in Tiberias. Aaron ben Asher later adds vowels and Masoretic notes, making it a reference text for the Hebrew Bible.
- 1008The Leningrad Codex, the oldest complete Hebrew Bible, is copied
A colophon dates the Leningrad Codex to 1008 (possibly 1009) in Cairo. It is the oldest known complete manuscript of the Hebrew Bible and the base text of most modern scholarly editions.
- c. 1205Stephen Langton's chapter divisions shape the modern Bible
Around 1205 the English theologian Stephen Langton divides the Vulgate into the chapters still used in most Bibles. They spread through the Paris Bibles of the 13th century. Verse numbers come only in the 1550s.
- c. 1382 – c. 1388The first complete English Bible, the Wycliffite Bible, is made
Around 1382 a first English Bible is translated from the Latin Vulgate in the circle of John Wycliffe at Oxford; a freer revision follows c. 1388. Wycliffe's own part in the translation is disputed.
- 1407 – 1409England restricts unlicensed Bible translation
In 1407–1409 Archbishop Thomas Arundel's constitutions, issued at Oxford, require church approval for any new English translation of Scripture and bar the public reading of Wycliffe's writings.
- c. 1455Gutenberg Bible printed
Movable-type printing in Mainz produces the first major book in Europe.
- 1466Mentelin prints the first German Bible in Strasbourg
In 1466 Johannes Mentelin prints in Strasbourg the first Bible in German, a High German translation from the Vulgate. It is reprinted at least thirteen times before 1518, well before Luther.
- 1488The first complete printed Hebrew Bible appears at Soncino
In 1488 the Soncino printers in northern Italy publish the first complete printed Hebrew Bible, without commentary. Most sources date its completion to 22 April 1488; some give February.
- 1514 – 1520The Complutensian Polyglot, the first printed polyglot Bible, is produced in Alcalá
Funded by Cardinal Cisneros, the six-volume Bible in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and Latin is printed at Alcalá de Henares in 1514–1517 and issued in 1520–21. It holds the first printed Greek New Testament.
- 1516Erasmus publishes the first Greek New Testament on sale
In 1516 Desiderius Erasmus's Novum Instrumentum, with the Greek text beside his own Latin, is printed by Johann Froben in Basel. Its Greek became the basis of the Textus Receptus used by Luther and the King James Bible.
- 1517Daniel Bomberg prints the first Rabbinic Bible in Venice
In 1517 the Venetian printer Daniel Bomberg issues the first Mikraot Gedolot, the Hebrew Bible with Aramaic translations and commentaries. A corrected second edition under Jacob ben Hayyim became the standard.
- September 1522Luther publishes his German New Testament
Luther's German New Testament, the 'September Bible', appears in Wittenberg in September 1522. His complete Bible follows in 1534 from Hans Lufft's press, and helps move German toward a standard written form.
- 1526Tyndale's English New Testament is printed at Worms
The first complete printed English New Testament, translated by William Tyndale, appears at Worms in 1526. Bishop Tunstall has copies bought and burned; Tyndale is arrested at Antwerp in 1535 and burned near Vilvoorde in October 1536.
- 1534Luther publishes his complete German Bible
In 1534 Martin Luther completes his translation of the Old Testament, and the full Bible appears in Wittenberg. It helps establish High German as a literary language and remains widely used.
- 1535Coverdale's Bible, the first complete printed English Bible, appears
In 1535 Miles Coverdale's translation, built largely on Tyndale and Latin and German versions, is printed on the Continent. Research in 1997 identified the printer as Merten de Keyser of Antwerp.
- 1535Olivétan's French Bible is printed at Neuchâtel
In 1535 Pierre Robert Olivétan, a cousin of Calvin, publishes at Neuchâtel the first French Bible translated from Hebrew and Greek rather than Latin. Calvin writes its Latin preface; it is the first French Protestant Bible.
- October 1536William Tyndale is strangled and burned at Vilvoorde
In early October 1536 (traditionally 6 October) the English translator William Tyndale is executed for heresy near Brussels. Much of his wording later survives in the King James Bible.
- April 1539The Great Bible is published and ordered into every English church
The first edition of the Great Bible, edited by Myles Coverdale for Thomas Cromwell and largely based on Tyndale, appears in April 1539. Cromwell's 1538 order puts a copy of the Bible in English in every church.
- April 8, 1546The Council of Trent defines the canon of Scripture
On 8 April 1546, in its fourth session, the Council of Trent lists the sacred books as found in the Vulgate, including the deuterocanonical books that Protestants reject, and treats tradition as a source beside Scripture.
- 1551Robert Estienne numbers the verses of the New Testament
In his 1551 Greek–Latin New Testament, printed in Geneva, Robert Estienne first prints verse numbers, and does so for the Hebrew Bible in 1553. They complete the chapter-and-verse system still used to cite Scripture.
- 1560English exiles publish the Geneva Bible
In 1560 English Protestant exiles in Geneva, led by William Whittingham, publish the first complete English Bible translated from the original languages, with Calvinist notes. The Pilgrims later carry it on the Mayflower.
- 1568 – 1573Plantin prints the Antwerp Polyglot for Philip II
From 1568 to 1573 Christophe Plantin prints the eight-volume Biblia Regia in Antwerp, with Benito Arias Montano overseeing the texts and Philip II paying. It proves Plantin's Catholic loyalty and nearly ruins him.
- 1569Casiodoro de Reina publishes the first complete Spanish Bible
In 1569 Casiodoro de Reina, a former Spanish monk turned Protestant, prints the first complete Spanish Bible in Basel, the 'Biblia del Oso'. Cipriano de Valera revises it in 1602, the basis of the Reina-Valera.
- 1581Ivan Fedorov prints the Ostrog Bible, the first complete Church Slavonic Bible
In 1581 Ivan Fedorov prints at Ostroh, under Prince Konstanty Ostrogski, the first complete Bible in Church Slavonic, also the first in Cyrillic type. It becomes a model for later Russian editions.
- 1582 – 1610English Catholics publish the Douay–Rheims Bible
The English College's Catholic translation from the Vulgate appears with the New Testament at Rheims in 1582, mainly by Gregory Martin, and the Old Testament at Douai in 1609–1610. It is a Counter-Reformation answer to Protestant Bibles.
- 1590 – 1592Sixtus V and Clement VIII issue an official Vulgate
Pope Sixtus V's 1590 Vulgate, the first papally authorized edition, is halted after his death and recalled in 1592 for errors. Clement VIII's revision replaces it and stays the Catholic standard text.
- 1611The King James Bible is published
Approved at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, the Authorized Version is made by about 47 scholars and published in 1611 by Robert Barker. It draws on Tyndale and the Geneva Bible and long dominates English Bible reading.
- 1637The Dutch Statenvertaling is published
Ordered by the Synod of Dort in 1618 and paid for by the Dutch Republic, the Statenvertaling appears in 1637. It is the first Dutch Bible made directly from Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, and the Reformed Church's standard text.
- 1663John Eliot's Massachusett Bible is printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts
In 1663 the Puritan missionary John Eliot, with Massachusett assistants such as James Printer, publishes a complete Bible in the Massachusett language, the first in an Indigenous American language. The New Testament came out in 1661.
- 1670Spinoza's Tractatus questions the Bible's authorship
Published anonymously in 1670 with a false Hamburg imprint, Spinoza's Theological-Political Treatise urges reading the Bible critically like any text and denies that Moses wrote the Pentateuch. Banned in 1674.
- 1678Richard Simon's critical history of the Old Testament is suppressed
In 1678 the French priest Richard Simon publishes his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament, questioning Moses's authorship of much of the Pentateuch. Royal authorities seize and destroy the printing.
- March 7, 1804The British and Foreign Bible Society is founded
On 7 March 1804 a group including William Wilberforce founds the British and Foreign Bible Society to spread the Scriptures widely and cheaply. It begins a wave of Bible societies and mass translation and distribution.
- 1813Robert Morrison completes a Chinese New Testament
Reaching Macau in 1807 as the first Protestant missionary in China, Robert Morrison completes and prints a Chinese New Testament by the end of 1813, working in Canton. A full Bible follows later.
- February 4, 1859Tischendorf secures Codex Sinaiticus at Mount Sinai
On 4 February 1859 Constantin von Tischendorf is shown the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus at Saint Catherine's Monastery. It goes to Russia, and in 1933 the Soviet state sells it to the British Museum.
- 1878Wellhausen's Prolegomena gives the documentary hypothesis its classic form
In 1878 the German scholar Julius Wellhausen argues that the Torah was compiled from four originally independent sources written centuries after Moses. His formulation dominates Old Testament scholarship for generations.
- 1881 – 1885The Revised Version updates the King James Bible
A British committee of over fifty scholars publishes the Revised Version New Testament in 1881 and the Old Testament in 1885. The New Testament follows the Westcott–Hort Greek text, drawing on Vaticanus and Sinaiticus.
- 1898Eberhard Nestle publishes his Greek New Testament
In 1898 Eberhard Nestle issues the first edition of the critical Greek New Testament that, as the Nestle–Aland text (now NA28), underlies most modern translations and biblical scholarship.
- 1935The Rylands fragment of John, a very early New Testament papyrus, is published
In 1935 C. H. Roberts publishes in Manchester a small papyrus fragment of John 18, bought in Egypt in 1920. Dated probably to the 2nd century (c. 125 or later, debated), it is among the earliest New Testament manuscripts.
- 1942Wycliffe Bible Translators is founded to translate Scripture into every language
In 1942 William Cameron Townsend founds Wycliffe Bible Translators in the United States. Its alliance now aims to start translation in every language that still lacks one; Scripture exists in over 4,000 languages.
- September 30, 1943Pius XII's Divino afflante Spiritu endorses critical Bible study
On 30 September 1943 Pope Pius XII's encyclical urges Catholic translations from the original Hebrew and Greek rather than the Vulgate, and permits textual and historical-critical methods.
- 1945The Nag Hammadi library is found in Egypt
In late 1945 a cache of twelve papyrus codices, plus loose leaves of a thirteenth, is found near Nag Hammadi. The Coptic texts include Gnostic works and the only complete Gospel of Thomas.
- 1946 – 1956The Dead Sea Scrolls are found at Qumran
From late 1946 Bedouin shepherds and then excavators recover about 15,000 scrolls and fragments from caves near Qumran, until 1956. Dating from c. 3rd century BCE to 1st century CE, they include the oldest biblical manuscripts known.
- 1952The Revised Standard Version is published
After its 1946 New Testament, the National Council of Churches issues the complete Revised Standard Version in 1952, updating the American Standard Version while keeping the Tyndale–King James tradition. A Catholic edition follows in 1965–66.
- November 18, 1965Vatican II's Dei Verbum calls for wide access to Scripture
On 18 November 1965 Paul VI promulgates Dei Verbum, Vatican II's constitution on divine revelation. It asks that easy access to Scripture be given to all the faithful and supports translations into many languages.
- 1978The New International Version Bible is completed
A project launched by a 1965 conference and taken over by the New York Bible Society in 1967 issues its New Testament in 1973 and the complete New International Version in 1978. Over 500 million copies have been printed.
- July 24, 2008Codex Sinaiticus goes online
From 24 July 2008 the four institutions holding Codex Sinaiticus, including the British Library and Saint Catherine's Monastery, publish it online. Pages reunite what was split across Leipzig, London, Sinai and St Petersburg.